An official website of the United States government

Carbon Dioxide

PubChem CID
280
Structure
Carbon Dioxide_small.png
Carbon Dioxide_3D_Structure.png
Carbon Dioxide__Crystal_Structure.png
Molecular Formula
Synonyms
  • carbon dioxide
  • carbonic anhydride
  • Dry ice
  • 124-38-9
  • carbonic acid gas
Molecular Weight
44.009 g/mol
Computed by PubChem 2.2 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Dates
  • Create:
    2005-03-26
  • Modify:
    2025-01-18
Description
Carbon dioxide appears as a colorless odorless gas at atmospheric temperatures and pressures. Relatively nontoxic and noncombustible. Heavier than air and may asphyxiate by the displacement of air. Soluble in water. Forms carbonic acid, a mild acid. Under prolonged exposure to heat or fire the container may rupture violently and rocket. Used to freeze food, to control chemical reactions, and as a fire extinguishing agent.
Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid appears as a colorless liquid. Relatively heavier than air and can asphyxiate by the displacement of air. Under prolonged exposure to heat or fire the container may rupture violently and rocket. Used as a refrigerant and in making carbonated beverages. Used to freeze food, to control chemical reactions and as a fire extinguishing agent.
Carbon dioxide, solid appears as an odorless, white solid. Can cause damaging frostbite. Noncombustible and nontoxic. Liquefies at -109 °F. Can asphyxiate by displacement of air. Used as a refrigerant.
See also: Carbonic Acid (has subclass); Dry Ice (has subclass); Tobacco Smoke (part of) ... View More ...

1 Structures

1.1 2D Structure

Chemical Structure Depiction
Carbon Dioxide.png

1.2 3D Conformer

1.3 Crystal Structures

1 of 7
View All
COD Number
Associated Article
de Smedt, J.; Keesom, W. H.. The structure of solid nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen 1924;27:839-846.
Crystal Structure Depiction
Crystal Structure Depiction
Hermann-Mauguin space group symbol
P a -3
Hall space group symbol
-P 2ac 2ab 3
Space group number
205
a
5.63 Å
b
5.63 Å
c
5.63 Å
α
90 °
β
90 °
γ
90 °
Z
4
Z'
0.166666666666667

2 Names and Identifiers

2.1 Computed Descriptors

2.1.1 InChI

InChI=1S/CO2/c2-1-3
Computed by InChI 1.0.6 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)

2.1.2 InChIKey

CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Computed by InChI 1.0.6 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)

2.1.3 SMILES

C(=O)=O
Computed by OEChem 2.3.0 (PubChem release 2024.12.12)

2.2 Molecular Formula

CO2
Computed by PubChem 2.2 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
CO2

2.3 Other Identifiers

2.3.1 CAS

124-38-9
18983-82-9

2.3.3 Deprecated CAS

1053656-66-8, 1053659-60-1, 1173022-42-8, 1202865-27-7, 18923-20-1, 957761-35-2
1053656-66-8, 1053659-60-1, 18923-20-1, 957761-35-2

2.3.4 European Community (EC) Number

204-696-9

2.3.5 UNII

2.3.6 UN Number

2.3.7 ChEBI ID

2.3.8 ChEMBL ID

2.3.9 DrugBank ID

2.3.10 DSSTox Substance ID

2.3.11 HMDB ID

2.3.12 ICSC Number

2.3.13 KEGG ID

2.3.14 NCI Thesaurus Code

2.3.15 Nikkaji Number

2.3.16 PharmGKB ID

2.3.17 RTECS Number

2.3.18 RXCUI

2.3.19 Wikidata

2.3.20 Wikipedia

2.4 Synonyms

2.4.1 MeSH Entry Terms

  • Anhydride, Carbonic
  • Carbon Dioxide
  • Carbonic Anhydride
  • Dioxide, Carbon

2.4.2 Depositor-Supplied Synonyms

3 Chemical and Physical Properties

3.1 Computed Properties

Property Name
Molecular Weight
Property Value
44.009 g/mol
Reference
Computed by PubChem 2.2 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
XLogP3-AA
Property Value
0.9
Reference
Computed by XLogP3 3.0 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by Cactvs 3.4.8.18 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count
Property Value
2
Reference
Computed by Cactvs 3.4.8.18 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Rotatable Bond Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by Cactvs 3.4.8.18 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Exact Mass
Property Value
43.989829239 Da
Reference
Computed by PubChem 2.2 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Monoisotopic Mass
Property Value
43.989829239 Da
Reference
Computed by PubChem 2.2 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Topological Polar Surface Area
Property Value
34.1 Ų
Reference
Computed by Cactvs 3.4.8.18 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Heavy Atom Count
Property Value
3
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Formal Charge
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Complexity
Property Value
18.3
Reference
Computed by Cactvs 3.4.8.18 (PubChem release 2021.10.14)
Property Name
Isotope Atom Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count
Property Value
0
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count
Property Value
1
Reference
Computed by PubChem
Property Name
Compound Is Canonicalized
Property Value
No
Reference
Computed by PubChem (release 2021.10.14)

3.2 Experimental Properties

3.2.1 Physical Description

Carbon dioxide appears as a colorless odorless gas at atmospheric temperatures and pressures. Relatively nontoxic and noncombustible. Heavier than air and may asphyxiate by the displacement of air. Soluble in water. Forms carbonic acid, a mild acid. Under prolonged exposure to heat or fire the container may rupture violently and rocket. Used to freeze food, to control chemical reactions, and as a fire extinguishing agent.
Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid appears as a colorless liquid. Relatively heavier than air and can asphyxiate by the displacement of air. Under prolonged exposure to heat or fire the container may rupture violently and rocket. Used as a refrigerant and in making carbonated beverages. Used to freeze food, to control chemical reactions and as a fire extinguishing agent.
Carbon dioxide, solid appears as an odorless, white solid. Can cause damaging frostbite. Noncombustible and nontoxic. Liquefies at -109 °F. Can asphyxiate by displacement of air. Used as a refrigerant.
NKRA; Gas or Vapor; Liquid; Gas or Vapor, Liquid; Other Solid
A colourless gas under normal environmental conditions with a slight pungent odour. Commercial carbon dioxide is shipped and handled as a liquid in pressurised cylinders or bulk storage systems, or in compressed solid blocks of ‘dry ice’. Solid (dry ice) forms usually contain added substances, such as propylene glycol or mineral oil, as binders
Colorless, odorless gas; Note: Shipped as a liquefied compressed gas. Solid form is utilized as dry ice; [NIOSH]
Liquid
ODOURLESS COLOURLESS COMPRESSED LIQUEFIED GAS.
Colorless, odorless gas.
Colorless, odorless gas. [Note: Shipped as a liquefied compressed gas. Solid form is utilized as dry ice.]

3.2.2 Color / Form

Colorless gas
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 4-56
Liquid: colorless
Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2007., p. 233
Solid (dry ice): white, snow-like flakes or cubes
Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2007., p. 239
Colorless ... gas [Note: Shipped as a liquefied compressed gas. Solid form is utilized as dry ice].
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010-168 (2010). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg

3.2.3 Odor

Odorless
Lewis, R.J. Sr. (ed) Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 12th Edition. Wiley-Interscience, Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2012., p. 868
Faintly pungent odor
Pierantozzi R; Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (2005). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Carbon Dioxide. Online Posting Date: October 17, 2003.

3.2.4 Taste

Faint acid taste
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315

3.2.5 Boiling Point

Sublimes (NIOSH, 2024)
-78.464 °C (sublimes)
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 4-56
sublimes

3.2.6 Melting Point

-109.3 °F (USCG, 1999)
U.S. Coast Guard. 1999. Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) - Hazardous Chemical Data. Commandant Instruction 16465.12C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
-109 °F (Sublimes) (NIOSH, 2024)
-56.558 °C (triple point)
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 4-56
-56.5 °C
-109 °F (sublimes)

3.2.7 Flash Point

Not applicable
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html

3.2.8 Solubility

0.2 % at 77 °F (NIOSH, 2024)
In water, 2.9X10+3 mg/L at 25 °C
Yalkowsky, S.H., He, Yan, Jain, P. Handbook of Aqueous Solubility Data Second Edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2010, p. 18
Solubility in water (mL CO2/100 mL H2O at 760 mm Hg): 171 at 0 °C; 88 at 20 °C; 36 at 60 °C
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
Solubility in water: 0.704X10-3 mole fraction of CO2 in the liquid phase at 25 °C (gas at a partial pressure of 101.325 kPa in equilibrium with the solution)
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 5-153
Miscible with water (1.7 v/v at 0 °C, 0.76 v/v at 25 °C at 760 mm Hg partial pressure of CO2).
Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2007., p. 233
For more Solubility (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.
1.48 mg/mL at 25 °C
Solubility in water, g/l: 2 (slightly soluble)
(77 °F): 0.2%

3.2.9 Density

1.56 at -110.2 °F (USCG, 1999) - Denser than water; will sink
U.S. Coast Guard. 1999. Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) - Hazardous Chemical Data. Commandant Instruction 16465.12C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Absolute density: 0.1146 lb/cu ft at 25 °C; density: (gas at 0 °C) 1.976 g/L at 760 mm Hg; (liq at 0 °C) 0.914 at 34.3 atm; (solid) at -56.6 °C) 1.512; critical density: 0.464
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
Density: 1.799 g/L
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 4-56
Liquid: volatile, odorless, density 1.101 at -37 °C, specific volume 8.76 cu ft/lb at 70 °F
Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2007., p. 233
Absolute density, gas at 101.325 kPa at 0 °C: 1.9770 kg/cu m; relative density, gas at 101.325 kPa at 0 °C (Air = 1): 1.53
Braker W, Mossman A; Matheson Gas Data Book 6th ED p.120 (1980)
Latent heat of vaporization = 353.4 J/g at the triple point; 231.3 J/g at 0 °C; viscosity = 0.015 mPa-sec at 298 K and 101.3 kPa; gas density = 1.976 g/L at 273 K and 101.3 kPa
Pierantozzi R; Carbon Dioxide. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 13 Oct 2003
1.56 at -110.2 °F
1.53(relative gas density)

3.2.10 Vapor Density

1.53 (NIOSH, 2024) - Heavier than air; will sink (Relative to Air)
1.53 at 78.2 °C (Air = 1)
Lewis, R.J. Sr. (ed) Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 11th Edition. Wiley-Interscience, Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2004., p. 705
Relative vapor density (air = 1): 1.5
1.53

3.2.11 Vapor Pressure

56.5 atm (NIOSH, 2024)
Vapor pressure = 10.5 mm Hg at -120 °C; 104.2 mm Hg at -100 °C; 569.1 mm Hg at -82 °C
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
4.83X10+4 mm Hg at 25 °C
Daubert, T.E., R.P. Danner. Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Chemicals Data Compilation. Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis, 1989.
Vapor pressure, kPa at 20 °C: 5720
56.5 atm

3.2.12 LogP

0.83
HANSCH,C ET AL. (1995)

3.2.13 Stability / Shelf Life

Stable under recommended storage conditions.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Gas is not affected by heat until temp reaches about 2000 °C
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2006., p. 293

3.2.14 Decomposition

The substance decomposes on heating above 2000 °C producing toxic carbon monoxide.
International Program on Chemical Safety/Commission of the European Communities; International Chemical Safety Card on Carbon dioxide (October 2006). Available from, as of November 17, 2009: https://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html

3.2.15 Viscosity

21.29 uPa-sec at 300 K /26.85 °C/
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 6-236

3.2.16 Heat of Combustion

0 J/kmol
Daubert, T.E., R.P. Danner. Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Chemicals Data Compilation. Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis, 1989.

3.2.17 Heat of Vaporization

83.12 g-cal/g
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315

3.2.18 pH

The pH of saturated CO2 solutions varies from 3.7 at 101 kPa (1 atm) to 3.2 at 2370 kPa (23.4 atm)
Pierantozzi R; Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (2005). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Carbon Dioxide. Online Posting Date: October 17, 2003.

3.2.19 Surface Tension

0.0162 Newtons/meter at melting point
Daubert, T.E., R.P. Danner. Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Chemicals Data Compilation. Washington, D.C.: Taylor and Francis, 1989.

3.2.20 Ionization Potential

13.77 eV

3.2.21 Odor Threshold

Odorless
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon Dioxide p.1 (1984)

3.2.22 Refractive Index

Index of refraction: 1.6630 at 24 °C
Lide, D.R. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 88TH Edition 2007-2008. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL 2007, p. 4-148

3.2.23 Kovats Retention Index

Semi-standard non-polar
152 , 152 , 153 , 154

3.2.24 Other Experimental Properties

Heat of formation: -393.51 kJ/mol; Entropy: 213.785 J/K-mol
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 7th ed. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 30 May 2014
Heat capacity: 37.13 J/mol-K
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 7th ed. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 30 May 2014
Rate constant for second order reaction with O(1D): 1.1X10-10 cu cm/molecule-sec at 25 °C; with singlet O2 reaction: <2X10-20 cu cm/molecule-sec at 25 °C
Lide, D.R. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 88TH Edition 2007-2008. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL 2007, p. 5-87
van der Waals constants: a = 3.658 bar-sq L/sq mol; b = 0.0429 L/mol
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 6-56
For more Other Experimental Properties (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (15 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

3.3 SpringerMaterials Properties

3.4 Chemical Classes

Toxic Gases & Vapors -> Simple Asphyxiants

3.4.1 Drugs

3.4.1.1 Human Drugs
Human drug -> Active ingredient (CARBON DIOXIDE)

3.4.2 Cosmetics

Propellant
S13 | EUCOSMETICS | Combined Inventory of Ingredients Employed in Cosmetic Products (2000) and Revised Inventory (2006) | DOI:10.5281/zenodo.2624118

3.4.3 Food Additives

ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT, ANTIOXIDANT, FLAVOR ENHANCER, FLAVORING AGENT OR ADJUVANT, FORMULATION AID, FREEZING OR COOLING AGENT, DIRECT CONTACT, PH CONTROL AGENT, PROCESSING AID, PROPELLANT, SOLVENT -> FDA Substance added to food

3.4.4 Pesticides

Other Treatment
Active substance -> EU Pesticides database: Not approved
Agrochemicals -> Pesticide active substances
Active substance -> EU Pesticides database: Approved

4 Spectral Information

4.1 1D NMR Spectra

4.1.1 13C NMR Spectra

1 of 2
Copyright
Copyright © 2016-2024 W. Robien, Inst. of Org. Chem., Univ. of Vienna. All Rights Reserved.
Thumbnail
Thumbnail
2 of 2
Instrument Name
Bruker WM-250
Copyright
Copyright © 2002-2024 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. All Rights Reserved.
Thumbnail
Thumbnail

4.2 Mass Spectrometry

4.2.1 GC-MS

1 of 7
View All
Spectra ID
Instrument Type
EI-B
Ionization Mode
positive
Top 5 Peaks

44.0 99.99

28.0 12.67

16.0 9.25

12.0 5.35

22.0 1.75

Thumbnail
Thumbnail
Notes
instrument=HITACHI RMU-5B
2 of 7
View All
MoNA ID
MS Category
Experimental
MS Type
GC-MS
MS Level
MS1
Instrument
HITACHI RMU-5B
Instrument Type
EI-B
Ionization Mode
positive
Top 5 Peaks

44 99.99

28 12.67

16 9.25

12 5.35

22 1.75

Thumbnail
Thumbnail
License
CC BY-NC-SA

4.2.2 Other MS

1 of 2
Other MS
MASS: 61298 (NIST/EPA/MSDC Mass Spectral Database 1990 version); 89 (Atlas of Mass Spectral Data, John Wiley & Sons, New York)
2 of 2
Authors
MASS SPECTROSCOPY SOC. OF JAPAN (MSSJ)
Instrument
HITACHI RMU-5B
Instrument Type
EI-B
MS Level
MS
Ionization Mode
POSITIVE
Ionization
ENERGY 80 eV
Top 5 Peaks

44 999

28 127

16 93

12 54

22 18

Thumbnail
Thumbnail
License
CC BY-NC-SA

4.3 IR Spectra

IR Spectra
IR: 1924 (Sadtler Research Laboratories Prism Collection)

4.3.1 Vapor Phase IR Spectra

1 of 2
Instrument Name
DIGILAB FTS-14
Technique
Vapor Phase
Copyright
Copyright © 1980, 1981-2024 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Thumbnail
Thumbnail
2 of 2
Source of Spectrum
Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.
Source of Sample
Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.
Catalog Number
295108
Copyright
Copyright © 2021-2024 Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC. - Database Compilation Copyright © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Thumbnail
Thumbnail

6 Chemical Vendors

7 Drug and Medication Information

7.1 Drug Indication

Carbon dioxide is commonly used as an insufflation gas for minimal invasive surgery (laparoscopy, endoscopy, and arthroscopy) to enlarge and stabilize body cavities to provide better visibility of the surgical area. It has been used also in cryotherapy and as respiratory stimulant before and after anesthesia. It could be used also in expansion of blood vessels if required, to increase carbon dioxide level after rapid breathing, and to stimulate breathing after a period of nonbreathing.

7.2 FDA Approved Drugs

7.3 FDA National Drug Code Directory

7.4 Drug Labels

Drug and label
Active ingredient and drug

7.5 Clinical Trials

7.5.1 ClinicalTrials.gov

7.5.2 EU Clinical Trials Register

7.5.3 NIPH Clinical Trials Search of Japan

7.6 Therapeutic Uses

CO2 can be used to flood the surgical field during cardiac surgery. Because of its density, carbon dioxide displaces the air surrounding the open heart so that any gas bubbles trapped in the heart are carbon dioxide rather than insoluble nitrogen. Similarly, CO2 is used to de-bubble cardiopulmonary bypass and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) circuits. It is used to adjust pH during cardiopulmonary bypass procedures when a patient is cooled.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 558
Hypocarbia results in ... decreased blood pressure and vasoconstriction in skin, intestine, brain, kidney, and heart. These actions are exploited clinically in the use of hyperventilation to diminish intracranial hypertension.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 557
CO2 is used for insufflation during endoscopic procedures (e.g., laparoscopic surgery) because it is highly soluble and does not support combustion. Inadvertent gas emboli thus are dissolved and eliminated more easily via the respiratory system.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 558
Medication (Vet): wart destruction
Rossoff, I.S. Handbook of Veterinary Drugs. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1974., p. 82
For more Therapeutic Uses (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (8 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

7.7 Drug Warnings

In patients who are hypoventilating from /CNS depressants/ or anesthetics, increasing PCO2 may result in further CNS depression, which in turn may worsen the respiratory depression.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 558
Since carbon dioxide is the most potent cerebrovascular dilator known, it should not be used in patients with increased intracranial pressure, intracranial bleeding, expanding lesions, head injury, or in those in coma.
American Medical Association, Council on Drugs. AMA Drug Evaluations. 2nd ed. Acton, Mass.: Publishing Sciences Group, Inc., 1973., p. 507
The inhalation of high concentrations of carbon dioxide (about 50%) produces marked cortical and subcortical depression of a type similar to that produced by anesthetic agents.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 558

7.8 Biomarker Information

8 Food Additives and Ingredients

8.1 Food Additive Classes

JECFA Functional Classes
FOOD_ADDITIVE;

8.2 FDA Substances Added to Food

Used for (Technical Effect)
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT, ANTIOXIDANT, FLAVOR ENHANCER, FLAVORING AGENT OR ADJUVANT, FORMULATION AID, FREEZING OR COOLING AGENT, DIRECT CONTACT, PH CONTROL AGENT, PROCESSING AID, PROPELLANT, SOLVENT
Document Number (21 eCFR)

8.3 Associated Foods

8.4 Evaluations of the Joint FAO / WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives - JECFA

Chemical Name
CARBON DIOXIDE
Evaluation Year
1985
ADI
NOT SPECIFIED
Tox Monograph

9 Agrochemical Information

9.1 Agrochemical Category

Pesticide active substances -> Other Treatment
Pesticide active substances

9.2 EU Pesticides Data

1 of 2
Active Substance
carbon dioxide (basic substance)
Status
Not approved [Reg. (EC) No 1107/2009]
Legislation
Reg. (EU) 2021/80
2 of 2
Active Substance
carbon dioxide (active substance)
Status
Approved [Reg. (EC) No 1107/2009]
Date
Approval: 01/05/2022 Expiration: 30/04/2037
Legislation
2008/127, Reg. (EU) 2017/195, Reg. (EU) 2020/1160, Reg. (EU) 2021/745, Reg. (EU) 2022/437, Reg. (EU) No 532/2013, Reg. (EU) No 540/2011

10 Pharmacology and Biochemistry

10.1 Pharmacodynamics

Data not found.

10.2 FDA Pharmacological Classification

1 of 2
FDA UNII
142M471B3J
Active Moiety
CARBON DIOXIDE
Pharmacological Classes
Established Pharmacologic Class [EPC] - Radiographic Contrast Agent
Pharmacological Classes
Mechanisms of Action [MoA] - X-Ray Contrast Activity
FDA Pharmacology Summary
Carbon dioxide is a Radiographic Contrast Agent. The mechanism of action of carbon dioxide is as a X-Ray Contrast Activity.
2 of 2
Non-Proprietary Name
CARBON DIOXIDE
Pharmacological Classes
X-Ray Contrast Activity [MoA]; Radiographic Contrast Agent [EPC]

10.3 ATC Code

V - Various

V03 - All other therapeutic products

V03A - All other therapeutic products

V03AN - Medical gases

V03AN02 - Carbon dioxide

10.4 Bionecessity

... Essential to photosynthesis and plant growth. CO2 absorbed by leaves and water absorbed by roots are converted to simple sugars by sun's energy in plant chlorophyll.
Farm Chemicals Handbook 1984. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister Publishing Co., 1984., p. B-28
... Necessary for respiration cycle of ... animals.
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2006., p. 293

10.5 Absorption, Distribution and Excretion

Absorption
Data not found.
Carbon dioxide is excreted by the lungs and, in the form of bicarbonate ion, by the kidney, intestine and skin.
Osol, A., and R. Pratt. (eds.). The United States Dispensatory. 27th ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1973., p. 231
Carbon dioxide is produced by metabolism at approximately the same rate as O2 is consumed. At rest, this value is about 3 mL/kg per minute, but it may increase dramatically with heavy exercise. Carbon dioxide diffuses readily from the cells into the blood, where it is carried partly as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), partly in chemical combination with hemoglobin and plasma proteins, and partly in solution at a partial pressure of about 6 kPa (46 mmHg) in mixed venous blood. CO2 is transported to the lung, where it is normally exhaled at the rate it is produced, leaving a partial pressure of about 5.2 kPa (40 mmHg) in the alveoli and in arterial blood.
Brunton, L. Chabner, B, Knollman, B. Goodman and Gillman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Twelth Edition, McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY. 2011, p. 557
Gases and vapors known to be absorbed (or excreted) by the skin include ... carbon dioxide. ... About 2.7% of the carbon dioxide produced is excreted by /the skin/.
Hayes, W.J., Jr., E.R. Laws Jr., (eds.). Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology Volume 1. General Principles. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc., 1991., p. 139

10.6 Metabolism / Metabolites

Not metabolized.
Carbon dioxide is produced by the body's metabolism and is always present in the body at about 6% concentration. An average adult human will produce more than 500 g of carbon dioxide daily under resting conditions, and will produce much more when active. Additional carbon dioxide has several effects on the body, and responses are immediate. It stimulates breathing, which exhales the carbon dioxide carried to the lungs from the cells by the bloodstream. An increase in carbon dioxide concentration stimulates the heart rate, increases the blood pressure, increases adrenalin flow, and relaxes the vascular smooth muscles. In addition, carbon dioxide reacts with water in the body to form carbonic acid, which dissociates to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. An increase in carbon dioxide in the body increases acidity, and then the kidneys act to restore normal acidity.
USEPA/Office of Pesticide Programs; Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document - Carbon and Carbon Dioxide pp.8-9 EPA-4019 (September 1991). Available from, as of November 23, 2009: https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm
Perturbation of mitochondrial metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation or Krebs cycle affects embryogenesis. These studies assess the effects of altering pyruvate metabolism in 3-5 somite mouse embryos in whole embryo culture. ... To establish that pyruvate is metabolized during organogenesis the rates of (14)C-carbon dioxide production from 3-(14)C-pyruvate by conceptuses in vitro were measured on days 9-12. The rates of carbon dioxide production incr with incr gestational age. ... The rate of carbon dioxide production from pyruvate by day 10 yolk sac was 10 times greater than that by the embryo proper. Fluoroacetate produced a time and concn dependent reduction in carbon dioxide production in day 10 conceptuses. These studies demonstrate that pyruvate is metabolized by Krebs cycle during organogenesis. alpha-Cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate inhibits transport of pyruvate from cytosol to mitochondria. Embryos exposed to alpha-Cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate exhibited neural tube defects (11/12 at 1,000 uM). Thus, alterations of utilization of pyruvate is teratogenic to cultured embryos. Pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited via phosphorylation by E1-kinase. Dichloroacetate inhibits e1-kinase resulting incr pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and incr metabolism of pyruvate by Krebs cycle. Dichloroacetate produced neural tube defects in 0/12 embryos at 100 uM and 6/15 embryos at 500 uM. ... Pyruvate is metabolized during organogenesis and that proper regulation of pyruvate is metabolized during organogenesis and that proper regulation of pyruvate transport and metabolism is essential for normal development.
Hunter ES; Teratol 49 (5): 394 (1994)
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in diverse forms: dissolved in the plasma, or linked to proteins independently of the PCO2. Carbone dioxide is transported by the hemoglobin back to the lungs, where it is exhaled (A320, L1147).
A320: Balasubramanian M, Moorthy PS, Neelagandan K, Ponnuswamy MN: Preliminary Crystallographic Study of Hemoglobin from Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): A Low Oxygen Affinity Species. Protein Pept Lett. 2009;16(2):213-5. PMID:19200047

10.7 Biological Half-Life

Data not found.

10.8 Mechanism of Action

Data not found.
Supercritical carbon dioxide possesses germicide (bactericide and sporicide) effect. Despite of the fact, that this effect is used in industrial sterilization processes, the sterilization mechanism at molecular level is unclear. Our hypotheses can provide a molecular-biological explanation for the phenomenon. We believe that in supercritical state CO(2) reacts competitively with Met-tRNA(fMet), the formation rate and the amount of formyl-methionyl-tRNA (fMet-tRNA(fMet)) will be diminished by irreversible substrate consumption. The fMet-tRNA(fMet) possesses a key role in prokaryotic protein synthesis, being almost exclusively the initiator aminoacyl-tRNA. The formed carbamoyl-methionyl-tRNA (cMet-tRNA(fMet)), probably stable only under pressure and high CO(2) concentration, is stabilized by forming a ternary molecular complex with the GTP-form of the translational initiation factor 2 (GTP-IF2). This complex is unable to dissociate from preinitiation 70S ribosomal complex because of strong polar binding between the protein C-2 domain and the modified initiator aminoacyl-tRNA. The IF2-fMet-tRNA(fMet)-blocked 70S ribosomal preinitiation complex does not decompose following the GTP hydrolysis, becoming unable to synthesize proteins. The death of the microbial cell is caused by inhibition of the protein synthesis and energetic depletion. Moreover, we propose a possible mechanism for the accumulation of cMet-tRNA(fMet) in the bacterial cell. Since the translational process is an important target for antibiotics, the proposed mechanism could be a work hypothesis for discovery of new antibiotics. Made by high conservative character of prokaryotic translation initiation, the proposed IF2 pathway deterioration strategy may conduct to obtaining selective (with low mammalian toxicity) antimicrobials and at the same time, with reduced possibility of the drug resistance development.
Andras CD et al; Med Hypotheses 74 (2): 325-9 (2010)
... Well fed C. elegans (roundworm) avoid CO2 levels above 0.5%. Animals can respond to both absolute CO2 concentrations and changes in CO2 levels within seconds. Responses to CO2 do not reflect avoidance of acid pH but appear to define a new sensory response. Sensation of CO2 is promoted by the cGMP-gated ion channel subunits TAX-2 and TAX-4, but other pathways are also important. Robust CO2 avoidance in well fed animals requires inhibition of the DAF-16 forkhead transcription factor by the insulin-like receptor DAF-2. Starvation, which activates DAF-16, strongly suppresses CO2 avoidance. Exposure to hypoxia (<1% O2) also suppresses CO2 avoidance via activation of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor HIF-1. The npr-1 215V allele of the naturally polymorphic neuropeptide receptor npr-1, besides inhibiting avoidance of high ambient O2 in feeding C. elegans, also promotes avoidance of high CO2. C. elegans integrates competing O2 and CO2 sensory inputs so that one response dominates. Food and allelic variation at NPR-1 regulate which response prevails. These results suggest that multiple sensory inputs are coordinated by C. elegans to generate different coherent foraging strategies.
Bretscher AJ et al; Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 105 (23): 8044-9 (2008)
... Adult Caenorhabditis elegans (roundworm) display an acute avoidance response upon exposure to CO2 that is characterized by the cessation of forward movement and the rapid initiation of backward movement. This response is mediated by a cGMP signaling pathway that includes the cGMP-gated heteromeric channel TAX-2/TAX-4. CO2 avoidance is modulated by multiple signaling molecules, including the neuropeptide Y receptor NPR-1 and the calcineurin subunits TAX-6 and CNB-1. Nutritional status also modulates CO2 responsiveness via the insulin and TGFbeta signaling pathways. CO2 response is mediated by a neural circuit that includes the BAG neurons, a pair of sensory neurons of previously unknown function. TAX-2/TAX-4 function in the BAG neurons to mediate acute CO2 avoidance. ... C. elegans senses and responds to CO2 using multiple signaling pathways and a neural network that includes the BAG neurons and this response is modulated by the physiological state of the worm.
Hallem EA, Sternberg PW; Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 105 (23): 8038-43 (2008)

10.9 Human Metabolite Information

10.9.1 Tissue Locations

  • Kidney
  • Liver

10.9.2 Cellular Locations

  • Cytoplasm
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Extracellular
  • Golgi apparatus
  • Mitochondria
  • Nucleus
  • Peroxisome

10.9.3 Metabolite Pathways

10.10 Biochemical Reactions

10.11 Transformations

11 Use and Manufacturing

11.1 Uses

EPA CPDat Chemical and Product Categories
The Chemical and Products Database, a resource for exposure-relevant data on chemicals in consumer products, Scientific Data, volume 5, Article number: 180125 (2018), DOI:10.1038/sdata.2018.125
Sources/Uses
Used in carbonated beverages, fire extinguishers, dry ice, and propellants; A product of fermentation; [ACGIH] A product of animal metabolism and released when organic materials burn; a constituent of the earth's atmosphere at about 0.03% by volume; [Merck Index # 1809] Used in the deliming stage of leather production; [PMID 21938525]
ACGIH - Documentation of the TLVs and BEIs, 7th Ed. Cincinnati: ACGIH Worldwide, 2020.
Merck Index - O'Neil MJ, Heckelman PE, Dobbelaar PH, Roman KJ (eds). The Merck Index, An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 15th Ed. Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013. # 1809
Industrial Processes with risk of exposure

Aluminum Producing [Category: Industry]

Welding [Category: Weld]

Mining [Category: Industry]

Sewer and Wastewater Treatment [Category: Industry]

Firefighting [Category: Other]

Leather Tanning and Processing [Category: Industry]

Farming (Respiratory Hazards) [Category: Industry]

Activities with risk of exposure
Smoking cigarettes [Category: Food & Drugs]
For carbon dioxide (USEPA/OPP Pesticide Code: 016601) ACTIVE products with label matches. /SRP: Registered for use in the U.S. but approved pesticide uses may change periodically and so federal, state and local authorities must be consulted for currently approved uses./
National Pesticide Information Retrieval System's Database on Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://npirspublic.ceris.purdue.edu/ppis/
Carbon dioxide is used as a pesticide for insect control in stored grain under modified atmospheres containing approx 60% carbon dioxide.
USEPA/Office of Pesticide Programs; Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document - Carbon and Carbon Dioxide p.5 EPA-4019 (September 1991). Available from, as of November 23, 2009: https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm
Rodenticide (mice and rats)
European Commission, ESIS; Biocides Products Directive Pt 14 98/8/EC, Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9) p.7 (November 2007). Available from, as of October 20, 2009: https://esis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
Refrigerant; processing of foods; preserving foods; crusting of food; cryogenic freezing of food; prodn of urea, sodium carbonate (Solvay process), methanol, carbonic acid, lead carbonate, potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, sodium salicylate, carbonated petroleum, hydrocarbon products; provides an inert atmosphere for fire extinguishers, refinery products, petroleum products; displacing oxygen to prevent deterioration and flavor loss; in high pressure applications; oil well stimulation; in livestock slaughtering; as fertilizer; hardening of molds for metal castings
SRI
For more Uses (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (13 total), please visit the HSDB record page.
Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil industry, and the chemical industry. It is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminum capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for airguns, paintball markers, for inflating bicycle tires, and for making seltzer (L1144).
L1144: Wikipedia. Carbon dioxide. Last Updated 5 August 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

11.1.1 Use Classification

Food additives
FOOD_ADDITIVE; -> JECFA Functional Classes
Hazard Classes and Categories ->
Cosmetics -> Propellant
S13 | EUCOSMETICS | Combined Inventory of Ingredients Employed in Cosmetic Products (2000) and Revised Inventory (2006) | DOI:10.5281/zenodo.2624118

11.1.2 Industry Uses

  • Catalyst
  • Agricultural chemicals (non-pesticidal)
  • Processing aids, not otherwise listed
  • Chemical reaction regulator
  • Lubricating agent
  • Other
  • Soil amendments (fertilizers)
  • Processing aids not otherwise specified
  • Processing aids, specific to petroleum production
  • Propellants and blowing agents
  • Fixing agent (mordant)
  • Fuels and fuel additives
  • Intermediate
  • Adsorbents and absorbents
  • Not Known or Reasonably Ascertainable
  • Other (specify)

11.1.3 Consumer Uses

  • Other (specify)
  • Agricultural chemicals (non-pesticidal)
  • Processing aids, not otherwise listed
  • Other

11.1.4 Household Products

Household & Commercial/Institutional Products

Information on 256 consumer products that contain Carbon dioxide in the following categories is provided:

• Auto Products

• Commercial / Institutional

• Hobby/Craft

• Home Maintenance

• Inside the Home

• Landscaping/Yard

• Personal Care

• Pesticides

11.2 Methods of Manufacturing

Much of the carbon dioxide generated in the world is a byproduct of ammonia and hydrogen production, which make much more carbon dioxide than is ever recovered. Other sources are still exploited, but these are generally less efficient, and financially less attractive.
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014
/Carbon dioxide from ammonia: In the production of ammonia/ desulfurization of the hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas, naphtha) is carried out before catalytic steam reforming of the hydrocarbon to give a gaseous mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Air is added and further steam reforming is effected in a gaseous mixture that then also contains nitrogen. Because only hydrogen and nitrogen are required to make ammonia, the carbon oxide is removed from the gas stream. Most of the carbon monoxide is catalytically converted to carbon dioxide, and the latter is removed by dissolution under pressure.
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014
Carbon dioxide from flue gases. Carbon dioxide is a component of all flue gases produced by the complete combustion of carbonaceous fuels. Typical concentrations of carbon dioxide in such gases are 10 - 18 vol%. ... The flue gases, after being cooled and cleaned by passing through a water scrubber, are passed through an alkaline carbonate solution or an amine solution which absorbs carbon dioxide. Unlike carbon dioxide from an ammonia plant, the product obtained from flue gases is generally contaminated with small amounts of sulfur compounds. Although manufacture of carbon dioxide by this method was once of a considerable commercial importance, it is now seldom economically viable. It is, however, being revived in the United States for enhanced oil recovery projects, which require vast quantities of CO2.
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014
Large quantities of carbon dioxide are generated by fermentation processes, and up to 80% of this gas may be recoverable. Before being suitable for further use, however, the carbon dioxide must be freed of the impurities inherent in this method of manufacture, i.e., hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and various organic compounds such as aldehydes, acids, and higher alcohols and diols. Two general methods are available to purify fermentation carbon dioxide. Both use water scrubbers to remove the bulk of the entrained material. The impurities are then taken out by passing through either an activated charcoal bed or solutions of potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate. The first method relies on adsorption, whereas the second involves chemical reactions. In the second case the gas must be treated further downstream to remove oxidation products formed in the earlier stages as well as any traces of the reagents used in the purification.
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014
For more Methods of Manufacturing (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (8 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

11.3 Impurities

May contain traces of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide.
Pierantozzi R; Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (2005). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Carbon Dioxide. Online Posting Date: October 17, 2003.
The main impurities present in ... carbon dioxide /from natural sources / are methane and hydrogen sulfide.
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014
The necessary degree of purity is dependent on the final use to which the carbon dioxide is put. Because a large proportion is used in the food and drink industries, the major criteria for the quality of the carbon dioxide are that it should be free of odor and taste. Thus, all contaminants that could contribute to these two properties (e.g., sulfur compounds, oils, and hydrocarbons) should be removed, preferably to less than mg/kg levels. The main impurities present to any significant degree in the final purified product are usually nitrogen, oxygen, and argon (from air), and hydrogen and carbon monoxide (if the carbon dioxide came from a process-gas source).
Topham S et al; Carbon Dioxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 7th ed. (1999-2014). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: May 30, 2014

11.4 Formulations / Preparations

Grades: Technical, United States Pharmacopeia, commercial and welding, 99.5%, bone dry (99.95%).
Lewis, R.J. Sr.; Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY 2007., p. 233
Usually marketed in steel cylinders (under sufficient pressure to keep it liquid) or in solid form as Dry Ice.
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
Available in gas, liquid and solid form
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS SYNOPSIS: Carbon Dioxide, 1983
RADAR aerosol rodenticide containing 2.8 g pressurized CO2, purity > 99% (v/v) (Rentokil)
European Commission, ESIS; Biocides Products Directive Pt 14 98/8/EC, Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9) p.7 (November 2007). Available from, as of October 20, 2009: https://esis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
For more Formulations/Preparations (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (7 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

11.5 Consumption Patterns

44% is used captively (42% as a chem raw material for urea prodn; and 2% in the prodn of methanol and sodium carbonate, for inerting, pressurizing in coal mining and oil recovery); 56% is used as merchant carbon dioxide (11% in refrigeration; 5% in carbonation; 3% as chem raw material; 3% in inerting; 1% for pressurizing in soft drink mfr, breweries, wineries, and as an aerosol propellant in some food products; 30% in oil well stimulation; and 3% in other applications). (1973)
SRI
Refrigeration, 35%; Beverage carbonization, 25%; Inerting and pressurizing, 10%; Enhanced oil recovery, 10%; Miscellaneous, 20% (1983)
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS SYNOPSIS: Carbon Dioxide, 1983
A large portion (ca. 50%) of all the carbon dioxide recovered is used at the point of production to make further chemicals of commercial importance, mainly urea and methanol
Gerhartz, W. (exec ed.). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 5th ed.Vol A1: Deerfield Beach, FL: VCH Publishers, 1985 to Present., p. VA5 179
About 51% of the carbon dioxide used in the US is used in the food industry...it is generally used for food freezing or chilling; approximately 18% is used for beverage carbonation...both soft drinks and beer production consume the largest quantity for carbonation; about 10% is used for chemical manufacturing; other applications include metal working (4%) and oil and gas recovery (6%)
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed. Volumes 1: New York, NY. John Wiley and Sons, 1991-Present., p. V5 49

11.6 U.S. Production

Aggregated Product Volume

2019: 90,000,000,000 - <100,000,000,000 lb

2018: 100,000,000,000 - <110,000,000,000 lb

2017: 90,000,000,000 - <100,000,000,000 lb

2016: 90,000,000,000 - <100,000,000,000 lb

(1972) 1.46X10+12 grams
SRI
(1975) 1.68X10+12 grams
SRI
(1985) 3.92X10+12 g /liquid and solid only/
Chem & Engineering News 64 (16): 13 (1986)
(1990) 10.37 billion lb
Chem & Engineering News 70 (15): 17 (4/13/92)
For more U.S. Production (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (11 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

11.7 U.S. Imports

(1972) Negligible
SRI
(1975) Negligible
SRI

11.8 U.S. Exports

(1972) Negligible
SRI
(1975) Negligible
SRI

11.9 General Manufacturing Information

Industry Processing Sectors
  • Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing
  • Utilities
  • Paper Manufacturing
  • Not Known or Reasonably Ascertainable
  • Petrochemical Manufacturing
  • Oil and Gas Drilling, Extraction, and Support activities
  • Industrial Gas Manufacturing
  • Wholesale and Retail Trade
  • Food, beverage, and tobacco product manufacturing
  • Petroleum Refineries
  • Pesticide, Fertilizer, and Other Agricultural Chemical Manufacturing
  • All Other Basic Inorganic Chemical Manufacturing
  • All Other Basic Organic Chemical Manufacturing
EPA TSCA Commercial Activity Status
Carbon dioxide: ACTIVE
Industrial production sources include ammonia by-product, fermentation by- product, hydrogen by-product from refineries, ethylene oxide by-product, natural wells, acid neutralization by-product, cogeneration, waste neutralization by-product, SNG by-product, coal gasification by-product, sodium phosphate by-product
SRI Consulting. 2009 Directory of Chemical Producers. SRI Consulting. Menlo Park, CA 2009, p. 484
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2013, CO2 accounted for about 82% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human activities are altering the carbon cycle-both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by influencing the ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. While CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution. The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit CO2. The main sources of CO2 emissions in the United States are ... electricity ... transportation ... /and/ industry.
USEPA. Climate Change. Overview of Greenhouse Gases. Carbon Dioxide Emissions. Available from, as of February 18, 2015: https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html#ref1
Carbon dioxide is found in the products of combustion of all carbonaceous fuels, in naturally occuring gases, and as a product of animal metabolism.
Pierantozzi R; Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (2005). NY, NY: John Wiley & Sons; Carbon Dioxide. Online Posting Date: October 17, 2003.
Usually marketed in steel cylinders9under sufficient pressure to keep it liquid) or in solid form as dry ice (compressed carbon dioxide snow, density 1.35).
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
For more General Manufacturing Information (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

11.10 Sampling Procedures

Sampling ... may be performed by collection of carbon dioxide in a gas sampling bag.
Mackison, F. W., R. S. Stricoff, and L. J. Partridge, Jr. (eds.). NIOSH/OSHA - Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123 (3 VOLS). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Jan. 1981., p. 2

12 Identification

12.1 Analytic Laboratory Methods

Method: NIOSH 6603; Procedure: portable gas chromatograph, with thermal conductivity detector; Analyte: carbon dioxide; Matrix: air; Detection Limit: 1 ppm.
CDC; NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, 4th ed. Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9). Available from, as of February 20, 2015: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-154/
Method: OSHA ID-172; Procedure: gas chromatograph and thermal conductivity detector; Analyte: carbon dioxide; Matrix: air; Detection Limit: 200 ppm (qualitative), 500 ppm (quantitative).
U.S. Department of Labor/Occupational Safety and Health Administration's Index of Sampling and Analytical Methods. Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9). Available from, as of February 20, 2015: https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/toc.html
Analysis of carbon dioxide (total) in baking powders using gasometric determination. Applicable to baking powders containing added calcium carbonate.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. and Supplements. Washington, DC: Association of Analytical Chemists, 1990, p. V2 685
Method: AOAC 940.17; Procedure: manometric method; Analyte: carbon dioxide; Matrix: beer; Detection Limit: not provided.
Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 18th Edition Online. Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9). Available from, as of November 24, 2009: https://www.aoac.org
For more Analytic Laboratory Methods (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (11 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

12.2 NIOSH Analytical Methods

13 Safety and Hazards

13.1 Hazards Identification

13.1.1 GHS Classification

1 of 4
View All
Note
Pictograms displayed are for 95% (1475 of 1552) of reports that indicate hazard statements. This chemical does not meet GHS hazard criteria for 5% (77 of 1552) of reports.
Pictogram(s)
Compressed Gas
Signal
Warning
GHS Hazard Statements

H280 (81.8%): Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated [Warning Gases under pressure]

H281 (20.7%): Contains refrigerated gas; may cause cryogenic burns or injury [Warning Gases under pressure]

Precautionary Statement Codes

P282, P336+P317, P403, and P410+P403

(The corresponding statement to each P-code can be found at the GHS Classification page.)

ECHA C&L Notifications Summary

Aggregated GHS information provided per 1552 reports by companies from 10 notifications to the ECHA C&L Inventory. Each notification may be associated with multiple companies.

Reported as not meeting GHS hazard criteria per 77 of 1552 reports by companies. For more detailed information, please visit ECHA C&L website.

There are 9 notifications provided by 1475 of 1552 reports by companies with hazard statement code(s).

Information may vary between notifications depending on impurities, additives, and other factors. The percentage value in parenthesis indicates the notified classification ratio from companies that provide hazard codes. Only hazard codes with percentage values above 10% are shown.

13.1.2 Hazard Classes and Categories

Press. Gas (Comp.) (81.8%)

Press. Gas (Ref. Liq.) (20.7%)

Press. Gas (Comp.) (100%)

13.1.3 Health Hazards

Inhalation causes increased respiration rate, headache, subtle physiological changes for up to 5% concentration and prolonged exposure. Higher concentrations can cause unconsciousness and death. Solid can cause cold contact burns. Liquid or cold gas can cause freezing injury to skin or eyes similar to a burn. (USCG, 1999)
U.S. Coast Guard. 1999. Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) - Hazardous Chemical Data. Commandant Instruction 16465.12C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Excerpt from ERG Guide 120 [Gases - Inert (Including Refrigerated Liquids)]:

Vapors may cause dizziness or asphyxiation without warning, especially when in closed or confined areas. Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground. Contact with gas, liquefied gas or cryogenic liquids may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite. (ERG, 2024)

ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· Vapors may cause dizziness or asphyxiation without warning, especially when in closed or confined areas.

· Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground.

· Contact with gas, liquefied gas or cryogenic liquids may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite.

13.1.4 Fire Hazards

Behavior in Fire: Containers may explode when heated. (USCG, 1999)
U.S. Coast Guard. 1999. Chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) - Hazardous Chemical Data. Commandant Instruction 16465.12C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Excerpt from ERG Guide 120 [Gases - Inert (Including Refrigerated Liquids)]:

Non-flammable gases. Containers may explode when heated. Ruptured cylinders may rocket. (ERG, 2024)

ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· Non-flammable gases.

· Containers may explode when heated.

· Ruptured cylinders may rocket.

Not combustible.

13.1.5 Hazards Summary

Possible frostbite from contact with liquid; [NIOSH] Simple asphyxiant; [ICSC]

13.1.6 Fire Potential

Noncombustible gas.
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2006., p. 293

13.1.7 Skin, Eye, and Respiratory Irritations

Momentary skin contact with dry ice has caused serious frostbites and blisters.
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co., Inc., 2006., p. 293

13.2 Safety and Hazard Properties

13.2.1 Flammable Limits

Flammability
Nonflammable Gas

13.2.2 Critical Temperature & Pressure

Critical temperature: 304.13 K; critical pressure: 7.375 MPa
Haynes, W.M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 95th Edition. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton: FL 2014-2015, p. 6-83

13.2.3 Physical Dangers

The gas is heavier than air and may accumulate in lowered spaces causing a deficiency of oxygen. Free-flowing liquid condenses to form extremely cold dry ice. This generates a frostbite hazard.

13.2.4 Explosive Limits and Potential

When carbon dioxide gas is passed over a mixture of powdered aluminum and sodium peroxide, the mixture explodes.
National Fire Protection Association; Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 14TH Edition, Quincy, MA 2010, p. 491-16
Containers may burst in the heat of a fire!
International Program on Chemical Safety/Commission of the European Communities; International Chemical Safety Card on Carbon dioxide (October 2006). Available from, as of November 17, 2009: https://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html
Solid carbon dioxide with sodium-potassium alloy will explode under a slight impact.
National Fire Protection Association; Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 14TH Edition, Quincy, MA 2010, p. 491-184
Mixture of solid forms of potassium and carbon dioxide (as dry ice) explodes when subjected to shock.
National Fire Protection Association; Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 14TH Edition, Quincy, MA 2010, p. 491-154

13.2.5 OSHA Standards

Permissible Exposure Limit: Table Z-1 8-hr Time Weighted Avg: 5000 ppm (9000 mg/cu m).
29 CFR 1910.1000 (USDOL); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
Vacated 1989 OSHA PEL TWA 10,000 ppm (18,000 mg/cu m); STEL 30,000 ppm (54,000 mg/cu m) is still enforced in some states.
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997., p. 360

13.2.6 NIOSH Recommendations

Recommended Exposure Limit: 10 Hr Time-Weighted Avg: 5,000 ppm (9,000 mg/cu m).
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010-168 (2010). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg
Recommended Exposure Limit: 15 Min Short-Term Exposure Limit: 30,000 ppm (54,000 mg/cu m).
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010-168 (2010). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg
10 hr Time-Weighted avg: 10,000 ppm (18,000 mg/cu m); 10 min Ceiling value: 30,000 ppm (54,000 mg/cu m).
NIOSH/CDC. NIOSH Recommendations for Occupational Safety and Health Standards 1988, Aug. 1988. (Suppl. to Morbidity and Mortality Wkly. Vol. 37 No. 5-7, Aug. 26, 1988). Atlanta, GA: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, CDC, 1988., p. V37(S7) 7

13.3 First Aid Measures

Inhalation First Aid
Fresh air, rest. Administration of oxygen may be needed. Artificial respiration may be needed. Refer for medical attention.
Skin First Aid
ON FROSTBITE: rinse with plenty of water, do NOT remove clothes. Refer for medical attention .
Eye First Aid
ON FROSTBITE: rinse with plenty of water. Refer for medical attention.

13.3.1 First Aid

Excerpt from NIOSH Pocket Guide for Carbon dioxide:

Eye: FROSTBITE - If eye tissue is frozen, seek medical attention immediately; if tissue is not frozen, immediately and thoroughly flush the eyes with large amounts of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the lower and upper eyelids. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist, get medical attention as soon as possible.

Skin: FROSTBITE - If frostbite has occurred, seek medical attention immediately; do NOT rub the affected areas or flush them with water. In order to prevent further tissue damage, do NOT attempt to remove frozen clothing from frostbitten areas. If frostbite has NOT occurred, immediately and thoroughly wash contaminated skin with soap and water.

Breathing: RESPIRATORY SUPPORT - If a person breathes large amounts of this chemical, move the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform artificial respiration. Keep the affected person warm and at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible. (NIOSH, 2024)

ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

General First Aid:

· Call 911 or emergency medical service.

· Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved, take precautions to protect themselves and avoid contamination.

· Move victim to fresh air if it can be done safely.

· Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.

· If victim is not breathing:

-- DO NOT perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation; the victim may have ingestedor inhaled the substance.

-- If equipped and pulse detected, wash face and mouth, then give artificial respiration using a proper respiratory medical device (bag-valve mask, pocket mask equipped with a one-way valve or other device).

-- If no pulse detected or no respiratory medical device available, provide continuouscompressions. Conduct a pulse check every two minutes or monitor for any signs of spontaneous respirations.

· Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.

· For minor skin contact, avoid spreading material on unaffected skin.

· In case of contact with substance, remove immediately by flushing skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes.

· For severe burns, immediate medical attention is required.

· Effects of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact) to substance may be delayed.

· Keep victim calm and warm.

· Keep victim under observation.

· For further assistance, contact your local Poison Control Center.

· Note: Basic Life Support (BLS) and Advanced Life Support (ALS) should be done by trained professionals.

Specific First Aid:

· Clothing frozen to the skin should be thawed before being removed.

· In case of contact with liquefied gas, only medical personnel should attempt thawing frosted parts.

(See general first aid procedures)

Eye: Frostbite - If eye tissue is frozen, seek medical attention immediately; if tissue is not frozen, immediately and thoroughly flush the eyes with large amounts of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the lower and upper eyelids. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist, get medical attention as soon as possible.

Skin: Frostbite - Compressed gases may create low temperatures when they expand rapidly. Leaks and uses that allow rapid expansion may cause a frostbite hazard. Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent the skin from becoming frozen.

Breathing: Respiratory support

13.4 Fire Fighting

Excerpt from ERG Guide 120 [Gases - Inert (Including Refrigerated Liquids)]:

Use extinguishing agent suitable for type of surrounding fire. If it can be done safely, move undamaged containers away from the area around the fire. Damaged cylinders should be handled only by specialists.

FIRE INVOLVING TANKS: Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned master stream devices or monitor nozzles. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out. Do not direct water at source of leak or safety devices; icing may occur. Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank. ALWAYS stay away from tanks in direct contact with flames. (ERG, 2024)

In case of fire in the surroundings, use appropriate extinguishing media. In case of fire: keep cylinder cool by spraying with water. Combat fire from a sheltered position.

13.4.1 Fire Fighting Procedures

Suitable extinguishing media: Use water spray, alcohol-resistant foam, dry chemical or carbon dioxide.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Advice for firefighters: Wear self contained breathing apparatus for fire fighting if necessary.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Fire fighting: self-contained breathing apparatus with a full facepiece operated in pressure-demand or other positive pressure mode.
Mackison, F. W., R. S. Stricoff, and L. J. Partridge, Jr. (eds.). NIOSH/OSHA - Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123 (3 VOLS). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Jan. 1981., p. 4
If material on fire or involved in fire: Extinguish fire using agent suitable for type of surrounding fire. (Material itself does not burn or burns with difficulty.) Cool all affected containers with flooding quantities of water. Do not use water on material itself. Apply water from as far a distance as possible. /Carbon dioxide; carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid/
Association of American Railroads; Bureau of Explosives. Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation. Association of American Railroads, Pueblo, CO. 2005, p. 175

13.4.2 Firefighting Hazards

/Carbon dioxide/ is not effective for use on fires involving chemicals that have their own oxygen supply (i.e., cellulose nitrate); or on fires involving reactive metals (such as, potassium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, titanium and zirconium) or their hydrides as these materials decompose carbon dioxide.
Braker W, Mossman A; Matheson Gas Data Book 6th ED p.121 (1980)

13.5 Accidental Release Measures

Public Safety: ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· CALL 911. Then call emergency response telephone number on shipping paper. If shipping paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number listed on the inside back cover.

· Keep unauthorized personnel away.

· Stay upwind, uphill and/or upstream.

· Many gases are heavier than air and will spread along the ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks, etc.).

· Ventilate closed spaces before entering, but only if properly trained and equipped.

Spill or Leak: ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· Do not touch or walk through spilled material.

· Stop leak if you can do it without risk.

· Use water spray to reduce vapors or divert vapor cloud drift. Avoid allowing water runoff to contact spilled material.

· Do not direct water at spill or source of leak.

· If possible, turn leaking containers so that gas escapes rather than liquid.

· Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.

· Allow substance to evaporate.

· Ventilate the area.

CAUTION: When in contact with refrigerated/cryogenic liquids, many materials become brittle and are likely to break without warning.

13.5.1 Isolation and Evacuation

Excerpt from ERG Guide 120 [Gases - Inert (Including Refrigerated Liquids)]:

IMMEDIATE PRECAUTIONARY MEASURE: Isolate spill or leak area for at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions.

LARGE SPILL: Consider initial downwind evacuation for at least 100 meters (330 feet).

FIRE: If tank, rail tank car or highway tank is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions. (ERG, 2024)

Evacuation: ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

Immediate precautionary measure

· Isolate spill or leak area for at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions.

Large Spill

· Consider initial downwind evacuation for at least 100 meters (330 feet).

Fire

· If tank, rail tank car or highway tank is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions.

13.5.2 Spillage Disposal

Personal protection: self-contained breathing apparatus. Shut off cylinder if possible. Ventilation.

13.5.3 Cleanup Methods

Accidental release measures. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures: Avoid breathing vapors, mist or gas. Ensure adequate ventilation. Evacuate personnel to safe areas.; Environmental precautions: Do not let product enter drains.; Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up: Clean up promptly by sweeping or vacuum.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
1) Ventilate area of leak to disperse gas. 2) Stop flow of gas. If source of leak is cylinder & leak cannot be stopped in place, remove...to safe place in open air, & repair leak or allow cylinder to empty.
Mackison, F. W., R. S. Stricoff, and L. J. Partridge, Jr. (eds.). NIOSH/OSHA - Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123 (3 VOLS). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Jan. 1981.
Water spray may be used to convert any form of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid which may then be neutralized with alkali.
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon Dioxide p.57 (1984)

13.5.4 Disposal Methods

SRP: Recycle any unused portion of the material for its approved use or return it to the manufacturer or supplier. Ultimate disposal of the chemical must consider: the material's impact on air quality; potential migration in air, soil or water; effects on animal, aquatic and plant life; and conformance with environmental and public health regulations. If it is possible or reasonable use an alternative chemical product with less inherent propensity for occupational harm/injury/toxicity or environmental contamination.
Product: Offer surplus and non-recyclable solutions to a licensed disposal company. Contact a licensed professional waste disposal service to dispose of this material.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Contaminated packaging: Dispose of as unused product.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Vent to atmosphere.
Sittig M; Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals p.134 (1981)
Evaporation: Remove leaking /carbon dioxide/ cylinder or scrap solid (snow or dry ice) to a hood with forced ventilation or to a remote outside area. Allow gas to bleed off at a moderate rate or solid to sublime.
United Nations. Treatment and Disposal Methods for Waste Chemicals (IRPTC File). Data Profile Series No. 5. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Environmental Programme, Dec. 1985., p. 131

13.5.5 Preventive Measures

Appropriate engineering controls: Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety practice. Wash hands before breaks and at the end of workday.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Gloves must be inspected prior to use. Use proper glove removal technique (without touching glove's outer surface) to avoid skin contact with this product. Dispose of contaminated gloves after use in accordance with applicable laws and good laboratory practices. Wash and dry hands.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
SRP: Local exhaust ventilation should be applied wherever there is an incidence of point source emissions or dispersion of regulated contaminants in the work area. Ventilation control of the contaminant as close to its point of generation is both the most economical and safest method to minimize personnel exposure to airborne contaminants. Ensure that the local ventilation moves the contaminant away from the worker.
Turn leaking cylinder with the leak up to prevent escape of gas in liquid state.
International Program on Chemical Safety/Commission of the European Communities; International Chemical Safety Card on Carbon dioxide (October 2006). Available from, as of November 17, 2009: https://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html
For more Preventive Measures (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (12 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

13.6 Handling and Storage

13.6.1 Nonfire Spill Response

Excerpt from ERG Guide 120 [Gases - Inert (Including Refrigerated Liquids)]:

Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Stop leak if you can do it without risk. Use water spray to reduce vapors or divert vapor cloud drift. Avoid allowing water runoff to contact spilled material. Do not direct water at spill or source of leak. If possible, turn leaking containers so that gas escapes rather than liquid. Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas. Allow substance to evaporate. Ventilate the area. CAUTION: When in contact with refrigerated/cryogenic liquids, many materials become brittle and are likely to break without warning. (ERG, 2024)

13.6.2 Safe Storage

Fireproof if in building. Cool. Ventilation along the floor.

13.6.3 Storage Conditions

Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities: Keep container tightly closed in a dry and well-ventilated place. Contents under pressure. Avoid heating above: 50 °C.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Fireproof if in building. Cool. Ventilation along the floor.
International Program on Chemical Safety/Commission of the European Communities; International Chemical Safety Card on Carbon dioxide (October 2006). Available from, as of November 17, 2009: https://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html
Dry ice should not be kept in container that is not designed to withstand pressure. Containers of other substances stored over dry ice for extended periods generally absorb carbon dioxide unless they have been carefully sealed. When such containers are removed from storage and allowed to come rapidly to room temperature, the carbon dioxide may develop sufficient pressure to burst the container with explosive violence. On removal of such containers from storage, the stopper should be loosened or the container itself should be wrapped in towels and kept behind a shield.
National Research Council; Prudent Practices in the Laboratory. Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards. the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 2011, p. 136
Store liquid containers in well ventilated areas. Keep cylinders away from sources of heat. Storage should not be in heavy traffic areas to prevent accidental knocking over or damage from passing or falling objects. Valve caps should remain on cylinders not connected for use. Segregate full and empty cylinders. ... Store carbon dioxide cylinders with the valve end up.
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon Dioxide (Draft) p.59 (1984)

13.7 Exposure Control and Personal Protection

Protective Clothing: ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

· Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides thermal protection but only limited chemical protection.

· Always wear thermal protective clothing when handling refrigerated/cryogenic liquids or solids.

Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAK)
5000.0 [ppm]

13.7.2 Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)

5000.0 [ppm]
PEL-TWA (8-Hour Time Weighted Average)
5000 ppm (9000 mg/m³)
TWA 5000 ppm (9000 mg/m3) See Appendix G

13.7.3 Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)

40000 ppm (NIOSH, 2024)

40000.0 [ppm]

Excerpts from Documentation for IDLHs: Other human data: Signs of intoxication have been produced by a 30­minute exposure at 50,000 ppm [Aero 1953], and a few minutes exposure at 70,000 to 100,000 ppm produces unconsciousness [Flury and Zernik 1931]. It has been reported that submarine personnel exposed continuously at 30,000 ppm were only slightly affected, provided the oxygen content of the air was maintained at normal concentrations [Schaefer 1951]. It has been reported that 100,000 ppm is the atmospheric concentration immediately dangerous to life [AIHA 1971] and that exposure to 100,000 ppm for only a few minutes can cause loss of consciousness [Hunter 1975].

AIHA - Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides, Complete Set and Update Set. Fairfax, VA: AIHA, 2008. 1971
40,000 ppm
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010-168 (2010). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg

40,000 ppm

See: 124389

13.7.4 Threshold Limit Values (TLV)

5000.0 [ppm]
TLV-STEL
30000.0 [ppm]
8 hr Time Weighted Avg (TWA): 5000 ppm; 15 min Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL): 30,000 ppm.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices. ACGIH, Cincinnati, OH 2014, p. 18
5000 ppm as TWA; 30000 ppm as STEL.
TLV-TWA (Time Weighted Average)
5000 ppm [1983]
TLV-STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit)
30,000 ppm [1983]

13.7.5 Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL)

EU-OEL
9000 mg/m

13.7.6 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines

Emergency Response: ERG 2024, Guide 120 (Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid)

· Use extinguishing agent suitable for type of surrounding fire.

· If it can be done safely, move undamaged containers away from the area around the fire.

· Damaged cylinders should be handled only by specialists.

Fire Involving Tanks

· Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned master stream devices or monitor nozzles.

· Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.

· Do not direct water at source of leak or safety devices; icing may occur.

· Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.

· ALWAYS stay away from tanks in direct contact with flames.

13.7.7 Other Standards Regulations and Guidelines

Australia: 5000 ppm, STEL 30,000 ppm (1990); Federal Republic of Germany: 5000 ppm, short-term level 10,000 ppm for 60 minutes, 3 times per shift (1989); Sweden: 5000 ppm, 15-minute short-term level 10,000 ppm (1984); United Kingdom: 5000 ppm, 10-minute STEL 15,000 ppm (1987).
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 6th ed. Volumes I, II, III. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1991., p. 223

13.7.8 Inhalation Risk

On loss of containment this substance can cause serious risk of suffocation when in confined areas.

13.7.9 Effects of Short Term Exposure

Rapid evaporation of the liquid may cause frostbite. Inhalation of high levels may cause effects on multiple organs. This may result in acidosis and impaired functions. Exposure at high concentrations could cause asphyxiation.

13.7.10 Effects of Long Term Exposure

The substance may have effects on the metabolism. This may result in impaired functions.

13.7.11 Allowable Tolerances

Residues of carbon dioxide are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good agricultural practice as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied to growing crops or to raw agricultural commodities after harvest. Use: propellant. Limit: none.
40 CFR 180.910 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
Residues of carbon dioxide are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good agricultural practice as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied to animals. Use: propellant. Limit: none.
40 CFR 180.930 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
The insecticide carbon dioxide is exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used after harvest in modified atmospheres for stored insect control on food commodities.
40 CFR 180.1049 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov

13.7.12 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Excerpt from NIOSH Pocket Guide for Carbon dioxide:

Skin: FROSTBITE - Compressed gases may create low temperatures when they expand rapidly. Leaks and uses that allow rapid expansion may cause a frostbite hazard. Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent the skin from becoming frozen.

Eyes: FROSTBITE - Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact with the liquid that could result in burns or tissue damage from frostbite.

Wash skin: No recommendation is made specifying the need for washing the substance from the skin (either immediately or at the end of the work shift).

Remove: No recommendation is made specifying the need for removing clothing that becomes wet or contaminated.

Change: No recommendation is made specifying the need for the worker to change clothing after the workshift.

Provide: FROSTBITE WASH - Quick drench facilities and/or eyewash fountains should be provided within the immediate work area for emergency use where there is any possibility of exposure to liquids that are extremely cold or rapidly evaporating. (NIOSH, 2024)

Eye/face protection: Use equipment for eye protection tested and approved under appropriate government standards such as NIOSH (US) or EN 166(EU).
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Handle with gloves.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Body Protection: impervious clothing. The type of protective equipment must be selected according to the concentration and amount of the dangerous substance at the specific workplace.
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
Respiratory protection: Where risk assessment shows air-purifying respirators are appropriate use a full-face respirator with multipurpose combination (US) or type AXBEK (EN 14387) respirator cartridges as a backup to engineering controls. If the respirator is the sole means of protection, use a full-face supplied air respirator. Use respirators and components tested and approved under appropriate government standards such as NIOSH (US) or CEN (EU).
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html
For more Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (10 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

(See personal protection and sanitation codes)

Skin: Frostbite - Compressed gases may create low temperatures when they expand rapidly. Leaks and uses that allow rapid expansion may cause a frostbite hazard. Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent the skin from becoming frozen.

Eyes: Frostbite - Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact with the liquid that could result in burns or tissue damage from frostbite.

Wash skin: No recommendation

Remove: No recommendation

Change: No recommendation

Provide: Frostbite wash - Quick drench facilities and/or eyewash fountains should be provided within the immediate work area for emergency use where there is any possibility of exposure to liquids that are extremely cold or rapidly evaporating.

13.7.13 Respirator Recommendations

NIOSH/OSHA

Up to 40000 ppm:

(APF = 10) Any supplied-air respirator

(APF = 50) Any self-contained breathing apparatus with a full facepiece

Emergency or planned entry into unknown concentrations or IDLH conditions:

(APF = 10,000) Any self-contained breathing apparatus that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode

(APF = 10,000) Any supplied-air respirator that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode in combination with an auxiliary self-contained positive-pressure breathing apparatus

Escape:

Any appropriate escape-type, self-contained breathing apparatus

Important additional information about respirator selection

13.7.14 Preventions

Fire Prevention
NO contact with incompatible materials: See Chemical Dangers
Inhalation Prevention
Use ventilation.
Skin Prevention
Cold-insulating gloves.
Eye Prevention
Wear safety spectacles.

13.8 Stability and Reactivity

13.8.1 Air and Water Reactions

Water soluble. Forms carbonic acid, a mild acid in water.

13.8.2 Reactive Group

Acids, Weak
Not Chemically Reactive

13.8.3 Reactivity Profile

Dusts of magnesium, lithium, potassium, sodium, zirconium, titanium, and some magnesium-aluminum alloys, and heated aluminum, chromium, and magnesium when suspended in carbon dioxide are ignitable and explosive. This is especially true in the presence of strong oxidizers, such as peroxides. The presence of carbon dioxide in solutions of aluminum hydride in ether can cause violent decomposition on warming the residue, [J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70, 877]. Dangers arising from the use of carbon dioxide in the fire prevention and extinguishing systems of confined volumes of air and flammable vapors are examined. The hazard associated with its use centers around the fact that large electrostatic discharges may be created that initiate explosion, [Quart. Saf. Summ., 1973, 44(1740, 10]. Contact of very cold liquid/solid carbon dioxide with water may result in vigorous or violent boiling of the product and extremely rapid vaporization due to the large temperature differences involved. If the water is hot, there is the possibility that a liquid "superheat" explosion may occur. Pressures may build to dangerous levels if liquid gas contacts water in a closed container. Forms weak carbonic acid in nonhazardous reaction with water.
Dusts of magnesium, lithium, potassium, sodium, zirconium, titanium, and some magnesium-aluminum alloys, and heated aluminum, chromium, and magnesium when suspended in carbon dioxide are ignitable and explosive. This is especially true in the presence of strong oxidizers, such as peroxides. The presence of carbon dioxide in solutions of aluminum hydride in ether can cause violent decomposition on warming the residue, [J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70, 877]. Dangers arising from the use of carbon dioxide in the fire prevention and extinguishing systems of confined volumes of air and flammable vapors are examined. The hazard associated with its use centers around the fact that large electrostatic discharges may be created that initiate explosion, [Quart. Saf. Summ., 1973, 44(1740, 10]. Contact with water of very cold liquid/solid carbon dioxide may result in vigorous or violent boiling of the product and extremely rapid vaporization due to the large temperature differences involved. If the water is hot, there is the possibility that a liquid "superheat" explosion may occur. Pressures may build to dangerous levels if liquid gas contacts water in a closed container. With water forms weak carbonic acid in nonhazardous reaction.
Contact of very cold liquid/solid carbon dioxide with water may result in vigorous or violent boiling of the product and extremely rapid vaporization due to the large temperature differences involved. If the water is hot, there is the possibility that a liquid "superheat" explosion may occur. Pressures may build to dangerous levels if liquid gas contacts water in a closed container. With water forms weak carbonic acid in nonhazardous reaction. Dusts of magnesium, lithium, potassium, sodium, zirconium, titanium, and some magnesium-aluminum alloys, and heated aluminum, chromium, and magnesium when suspended in carbon dioxide are ignitable and explosive. This is especially true in the presence of strong oxidizers, such as peroxides. The presence of carbon dioxide in solutions of aluminum hydride in ether can cause violent decomposition on warming the residue, [J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70, 877]. Dangers arising from the use of carbon dioxide in the fire prevention and extinguishing systems of confined volumes of air and flammable vapors are examined. The hazard associated with its use centers around the fact that large electrostatic discharges may be created that initiate explosion, [Quart. Saf. Summ., 1973, 44(1740, 10].

13.8.4 Hazardous Reactivities and Incompatibilities

Incompatible with acrylaldehyde, aziridine, metal acetylides, sodum peroxide.
Lewis, R.J. Sr. (ed) Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 11th Edition. Wiley-Interscience, Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2004., p. 706
Dusts of various metals, such as magnesium, zirconium, titanium, aluminum, chromium & manganese are ignitable and explosive when suspended in carbon dioxide. Forms carbonic acid in water.
NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Department of Health & Human Services, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2010-168 (2010). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg
When heated, cesium monoxide burns in ... carbon dioxide.
National Fire Protection Association; Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 14TH Edition, Quincy, MA 2010, p. 491-48
When potassium acetylene carbide is warmed with carbon dioxide the mass becomes incandescent.
National Fire Protection Association; Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. 14TH Edition, Quincy, MA 2010, p. 491-157
For more Hazardous Reactivities and Incompatibilities (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (16 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

13.9 Transport Information

13.9.1 DOT Emergency Guidelines

/GUIDE 120 GASES - INERT (Including Refrigerated Liquids)/ Fire or Explosion: Non-flammable gases. Containers may explode when heated. Ruptured cylinders may rocket. /Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid; Dry ice; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid/
U.S. Department of Transportation. 2012 Emergency Response Guidebook. Washington, D.C. 2012
/GUIDE 120 GASES - INERT (Including Refrigerated Liquids)/ Health: Vapors may cause dizziness or asphyxiation without warning. Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground. Contact with gas or liquefied gas may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite. /Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid; Dry ice; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid/
U.S. Department of Transportation. 2012 Emergency Response Guidebook. Washington, D.C. 2012
/GUIDE 120 GASES - INERT (Including Refrigerated Liquids)/ Public Safety: CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number listed on the inside back cover. As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area for at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions. Keep unauthorized personnel away. Stay upwind. Many gases are heavier than air and will spread along ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks). Keep out of low areas. Ventilate closed spaces before entering. /Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid; Dry ice; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid/
U.S. Department of Transportation. 2012 Emergency Response Guidebook. Washington, D.C. 2012
/GUIDE 120 GASES - INERT (Including Refrigerated Liquids)/ Protective Clothing: Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection. Always wear thermal protective clothing when handling refrigerated/cryogenic liquids or solids. /Carbon dioxide; Carbon dioxide, compressed; Carbon dioxide, solid; Dry ice; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid/
U.S. Department of Transportation. 2012 Emergency Response Guidebook. Washington, D.C. 2012
For more DOT Emergency Guidelines (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (8 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

13.9.2 DOT ID and Guide

13.9.3 Shipping Name / Number DOT/UN/NA/IMO

UN 1013; Carbon dioxide
UN 1845; Carbon dioxide, solid or dry ice
UN 2187; Carbon dioxide, refrigerated liquid
IMO 2.2; Carbon dioxide
For more Shipping Name/ Number DOT/UN/NA/IMO (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

13.9.4 Standard Transportation Number

49 045 09; Carbon dioxide, liquid (refrigerated)
49 045 35; Carbon dioxide
49 403 18; Carbon dioxide, solid, or dry ice or carbon ice

13.9.5 Shipment Methods and Regulations

No person may /transport,/ offer or accept a hazardous material for transportation in commerce unless that person is registered in conformance ... and the hazardous material is properly classed, described, packaged, marked, labeled, and in condition for shipment as required or authorized by ... /the hazardous materials regulations (49 CFR 171-177)./
49 CFR 171.2 (USDOT); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 17, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations are published by the IATA Dangerous Goods Board pursuant to IATA Resolutions 618 and 619 and constitute a manual of industry carrier regulations to be followed by all IATA Member airlines when transporting hazardous materials.
International Air Transport Association. Dangerous Goods Regulations. 55th Edition. Montreal, Quebec Canada. 2014., p. 208
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code lays down basic principles for transporting hazardous chemicals. Detailed recommendations for individual substances and a number of recommendations for good practice are included in the classes dealing with such substances. A general index of technical names has also been compiled. This index should always be consulted when attempting to locate the appropriate procedures to be used when shipping any substance or article.
International Maritime Organization. IMDG Code. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code Volume 2 2012, p. 44, 93, 105

13.9.6 DOT Label

Non-Flammable Gas
Class 9

13.9.7 UN Classification

UN Hazard Class: 2.2

13.10 Regulatory Information

The Australian Inventory of Industrial Chemicals
Chemical: Carbon dioxide
Status Regulation (EC)
Reg. (EU) 2021/80
Status Regulation (EC)
2008/127, Reg. (EU) 2017/195, Reg. (EU) 2020/1160, Reg. (EU) 2021/745, Reg. (EU) 2022/437, Reg. (EU) No 532/2013, Reg. (EU) No 540/2011
New Zealand EPA Inventory of Chemical Status
Carbon dioxide: Non hazardous

13.10.1 FIFRA Requirements

Residues of carbon dioxide are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good agricultural practice as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied to growing crops or to raw agricultural commodities after harvest. Use: propellant. Limit: none.
40 CFR 180.910 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
Residues of carbon dioxide are exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used in accordance with good agricultural practice as inert (or occasionally active) ingredients in pesticide formulations applied to animals. Use: propellant. Limit: none.
40 CFR 180.930 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
The insecticide carbon dioxide is exempted from the requirement of a tolerance when used after harvest in modified atmospheres for stored insect control on food commodities.
40 CFR 180.1049 (USEPA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
The EPA has previously identified and required submission of generic (i.e., active ingredient specific) data required to support reregistration of products containing carbon and carbon dioxide as an active ingredients. EPA has also consulted and relied upon published literature as a source for technical information. EPA has completed its review of these generic data, and has determined that the data are sufficient to support reregistration of products containing carbon and carbon dioxide. ... EPA has determined that all products containing carbon or carbon dioxide as the active ingredient are eligible for reregistration.
USEPA/Office of Pesticide Programs; Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document - Carbon and Carbon Dioxide p.13 (September 1991). Available from, as of March 31, 2015: https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm
As the federal pesticide law FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive review of older pesticides to consider their health and environmental effects and make decisions about their continued use. Under this pesticide reregistration program, EPA examines newer health and safety data for pesticide active ingredients initially registered before November 1, 1984, and determines whether the use of the pesticide does not pose unreasonable risk in accordance to newer safety standards, such as those described in the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Pesticides for which EPA had not issued Registration Standards prior to the effective date of FIFRA '88 were divided into three lists based upon their potential for human exposure and other factors, with List B containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List C, and with List C containing pesticides of greater concern than those on List D. Carbon dioxide is found on List D. Case No: 4019; Pesticide type: insecticide, rodenticide; Case Status: RED Approved 09/19; OPP has made a decision that some/all uses of the pesticide are eligible for reregistration, as reflected in a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) document.; Active ingredient (AI): carbon dioxide; AI Status: OPP has completed a Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) document for the case/AI.
United States Environmental Protection Agency/ Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances; Status of Pesticides in Registration, Reregistration, and Special Review. (1998) EPA 738-R-98-002, p. 299

13.10.2 FDA Requirements

Substance added directly to human food affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS).
21 CFR 184.1240 (USFDA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov
Carbon dioxide used as a general purpose food additive in animal drugs, feeds, and related products is generally recognized as safe when used in accordance with good manufacturing or feeding practice.
21 CFR 582.1240 (USFDA); U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Available from, as of February 4, 2015: https://www.ecfr.gov

13.11 Other Safety Information

Chemical Assessment
IMAP assessments - Carbon dioxide: Human health tier I assessment

13.11.1 Toxic Combustion Products

Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture: Carbon oxides
Sigma-Aldrich; Material Safety Data Sheet for Carbon dioxide. Product Number: 295108, Version 3.7 (Revision Date 07/02/2014). Available from, as of February 12, 2015: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html

13.11.2 Other Hazardous Reactions

Containers may explode when heated.
U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Transportation. CHRIS - Hazardous Chemical Data. Volume II. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984-5.

13.11.3 History and Incidents

An industrial incident was caused by a container of liquid carbon dioxide that was unintentionally opened in an enclosed working environment. Twenty-five casualties reached /the authors'/ emergency department. Symptoms included dyspnea, cough, dizziness, chest pain, and headache. ECGs (n = 15) revealed ST-segment changes in 2 (13.3%) patients, atrial fibrillation in 2 patients, and non-Q wave myocardial infarction in 1 patient. Chest radiographs (n = 22) revealed diffuse or patchy alveolar patterns, consistent with pneumonitis, in 6 (27%) patients and pulmonary edema in 2 (9%) patients. Eleven (44%) patients were admitted to the hospital: 8 were discharged 24 hours later and the others within 8 days. No patient died. Exposure to high concentrations of carbon dioxide resulted in significant but transient cardiopulmonary morbidity with no mortality when victims were promptly evacuated and given supportive therapy. Cardiac complications were frequently observed and should be actively sought.
Halpern P et al; Ann Emerg Med 43 (2): 196-9 (2004)
Carbon dioxide was blamed for the deaths of around 1700 people in Cameroon, west Africa, in 1986 when a massive release of gas occurred from Lake Nyos, a volcanic crater lake. The clinical findings in 845 survivors seen at or admitted to hospital were compatible with exposure to an asphyxiant gas. Rescuers noted cutaneous erythema and bullae on an unknown proportion of corpses and 161 (19%) survivors treated in hospital; though these lesions were initially believed to be burns from acidic gases, further investigation suggested that they were associated with coma states caused by exposure to carbon dioxide in air. The disaster at Lake Nyos and a similar event at Lake Monoun, Cameroon, two years previously provide new information on the possible medical effects of large scale emissions of carbon dioxide, though the presence of other toxic factors in these gas releases cannot be excluded.
BMJ 298 (6685): 1437-41 (1989).

13.11.4 Special Reports

USEPA/Office of Pesticide Programs; Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document - Carbon and Carbon Dioxide (September 1991). The RED summarizes the risk assessment conclusions and outlines any risk reduction measures necessary for the pesticide to continue to be registered in the U.S.[Available from, as of November 20, 2009: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm]
USEPA. Climate Change. Overview of Greenhouse Gases. Carbon Dioxide Emissions. This page summarizes the sources of carbon dioxide emissions and trends in the U.S, as well as strategies for reducing emissions.[Available from, as of February 18, 2015: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html#ref1]
Ocean acidification and its potential effects on marine ecosystems. Guinotte JM, Fabry VJ; Ann N Y Acad Sci 1134: 320-42 (2008): Marine taxa covered in this review include tropical reef-building corals, cold-water corals, crustose coralline algae, Halimeda, benthic mollusks, echinoderms, coccolithophores, foraminifera, pteropods, seagrasses, jellyfishes, and fishes.
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon Dioxide (1984)

14 Toxicity

14.1 Toxicological Information

14.1.1 Toxicity Summary

IDENTIFICATION AND USE: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless gas and liquid, or solid (dry ice): white, snow-like flakes or cubes. It is registered for pesticide use in the U.S. but approved pesticide uses may change periodically and so federal, state and local authorities must be consulted for currently approved uses. Carbon dioxide is used as a pesticide for insect control in stored grain under modified atmospheres containing approx. 60% carbon dioxide. It is also used as rodenticide (mice and rats). Other uses include refrigeration, carbonated beverages, aerosol propellant, chemical intermediate (carbonates, synthetic fibers, p-xylene, etc.), low-temperature testing, fire extinguishing, inert atmospheres, municipal water treatment, medicine, enrichment of air in greenhouses, fracturing and acidizing of oil wells, mining (Cardox method), miscible pressure source, hardening of foundry molds and cores, shielding gas for welding, cloud seeding, moderator in some types of nuclear reactors, immobilization for humane animal killing, special lasers, blowing agent, as demulsifier in tertiary oil recovery, possible source of methane, (liquid) carrier for powdered-coal slurry. Supercritical or liquid CO2 used in extraction of caffeine and hops aroma; dry cleaning; metal degreasing; cleaning semiconductor chips; paint spraying; polymer modification. Carbon dioxide is used in hydraulic fracturing. CO2 is also used as medication during surgical procedures. HUMAN EXPOSURE AND TOXICITY: Carbon dioxide is produced by the body's metabolism and is always present in the body at about 6% concentration. An average adult human will produce more than 500 g of carbon dioxide daily under resting conditions, and will produce much more when active. The gas is a weak CNS depressant at 30,000 ppm, giving rise to reduced acuity of hearing and increasing blood pressure and pulse. Exposure at 7%-10% produces unconsciousness within a few minutes. At low concentrations, gaseous carbon dioxide appears to have little toxicological effect. At higher concentrations it leads to an increased respiratory rate, tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias and impaired consciousness. Concentrations >10% may cause convulsions, coma and death. Solid carbon dioxide may cause burns following direct contact. If it is warmed rapidly, large amounts of carbon dioxide are generated, which can be dangerous, particularly within confined areas. Carbon dioxide at high concentration in air causes stinging sensation in eyes, nose, and throat. Asphyxiation with CO2 is said to have induced temporary proptosis and mydriasis and caused yellow vision, with transient blindness. Severe damage of CNS and retinal ganglion cells has been reported. ANIMAL STUDIES: Inhalation of air containing 68% carbon dioxide for 5 min caused death from asphyxia in pigs. Dogs were given 30% carbon dioxide for 2 hr, then 40% carbon dioxide, and then abruptly returned to normal air. Eleven dogs died within 10 min with ventricular fibrillation. Four survived with cardiac arrhythmias, and two had no cardiac symptoms. Rats exposed to an atmosphere containing 50% carbon dioxide died within 6 hr. Rats exposed to 25% died within 36 hr. Deaths were a result of pulmonary injury. Atmospheres as low as 20% carbon dioxide caused cerebral depression. All rats exposed to 10% carbon dioxide survived. Guinea pigs exposed to 15% carbon dioxide for 7 days lost weight at first but later returned to normal weight. They also had higher blood corticosteroids, lower adrenal epinephrine, decreased adrenal cholesterol, higher arterial free fatty acids, and decreased lymphocytes in the first 3 days of exposure. No effects were seen in male rhesus monkeys that spent 93 days in an atmosphere with 3% carbon dioxide. Toxicity to fertility (morphological changes of spermatozoa in mice at 1% and testicular changes in rats at 2.5%) and teratogenicity (cardiac and skeletal abnormalities in rats at 6%; skeletal abnormalities in rabbits at 10%) were observed. ECOTOXICITY STUDIES: Harmful to some species of aquatic life in concentrations less than 20 mg/L. Adult and larval insects are rapidly anesthetized by carbon dioxide. Groups of caged, queenless Apis mellifera (honeybee) workers narcotized with CO(2) on consecutive days early in adult life showed a significantly lower level of ovary activation than did groups of untreated workers. This same experimental treatment, by contrast, is known to accelerate ovary activation and induce egg laying in virgin honey bee queens--an observation that suggests that CO(2) narcosis has contrasting effects in queen versus worker ovary activation. Elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a consequence of anthropogenic global change, can profoundly affect the interactions between crop plants and insect pests and may promote yet another form of global change: the rapid establishment of invasive species.
Carbon dioxide causes widespread activation of the sympathetic nervous system and an increase in the plasma concentrations of epinephrine, norepinephrine, angiotensin, and other vasoactive peptides . The response is mediated by various subcortical centers in the hypothalamus, brainstem reticular formation and medulla. These areas can be excited locally by carbon dioxide, but they also receive afferents from the carotid and aortic chemoreceptors that are sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide in the blood. The results of sympathetic nervous system activation are, in general, opposite to the local effects of carbon dioxide. The sympathetic effects consist of an increase in cardiac contractility and heart rate and vasoconstriction (A628).
A628: Sato K, Yoshida K, Takahashi H, Ito K, Kamata M, Higuchi H, Shimizu T, Itoh K, Inoue K, Tezuka T, Suzuki T, Ohkubo T, Sugawara K, Otani K: Association between -1438G/A promoter polymorphism in the 5-HT(2A) receptor gene and fluvoxamine response in Japanese patients with major depressive disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 2002;46(3):136-40. PMID:12422060

14.1.2 NIOSH Toxicity Data

14.1.3 Carcinogen Classification

Carcinogen Classification
No indication of carcinogenicity (not listed by IARC). (L135)

14.1.4 Health Effects

Carbon dioxide poisoning (Hypercapnia) can induce increased cardiac output, an elevation in arterial blood pressure, and a propensity toward arrhythmias (L1145).
L1145: Wikipedia. Carbon dioxide poisoning. Last Updated 5 August 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_poisoning

14.1.5 Exposure Routes

The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation.
inhalation, skin and/or eye contact (liquid/solid)
Inhalation (L1144) ; dermal (L1144) ; eye contact (L1144).
L1144: Wikipedia. Carbon dioxide. Last Updated 5 August 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

14.1.6 Symptoms

Inhalation Exposure
Dizziness. Headache. Elevated blood pressure. Increased heart rate. Palpitations. Suffocation. Unconsciousness.
Skin Exposure
ON CONTACT WITH GAS OR DRY ICE: FROSTBITE.
Eye Exposure
ON CONTACT WITH LIQUID: FROSTBITE.
headache, dizziness, restlessness, paresthesia; dyspnea (breathing difficulty); sweating, malaise (vague feeling of discomfort); increased heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure; coma; asphyxia; convulsions; frostbite (liquid, dry ice)
Flushed skin, full pulse, extrasystoles, muscle twitches, hand flaps, reduced neural activity, headache, and possibly a raised blood pressure. In severe poisoning, symptomatology progresses to disorientation, panic, hyperventilation, convulsions, unconsciousness, and eventually death (L1145).
L1145: Wikipedia. Carbon dioxide poisoning. Last Updated 5 August 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_poisoning

14.1.7 Target Organs

respiratory system, cardiovascular system

14.1.8 Adverse Effects

Other Poison - Simple Asphyxiant

14.1.9 Acute Effects

14.1.10 Toxicity Data

LC50: 470 000 ppm (Inhalation, Rat) (L1146)
L1146: Air Gas (2009). Material Safety Data Sheet. Carbon Dioxide / Nitrogen Dioxide / Oxygen / Sulfur Dioxide. http://www.airgas.com/documents/pdf/008671.pdf

14.1.11 Treatment

In case of inhalation, administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen with assisted ventilation as required. Administer a benzodiazepine IV if seizures occur. Irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature water for at least 15 minutes if exposure occurred through eye exposure. In case of dermal exposure, rewarming and a variety of topical treatments are indicated for frostbite injury. (T36)
T36: Rumack BH (2009). POISINDEX(R) Information System. Englewood, CO: Micromedex, Inc. CCIS Volume 141, edition expires Aug, 2009.

14.1.12 Interactions

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are harmful because they can oxidize biological macromolecules. We show here that atmospheric CO(2) (concentration range studied: 40-1,000 ppm.) increases death rates due to H(2)O(2) stress in Escherichia coli in a dose-specific manner. This effect is correlated with an increase in H(2)O(2)-induced mutagenesis and, as shown by 8-oxo-guanine determinations in cells, DNA base oxidation rates. Moreover, the survival of mutants that are sensitive to aerobic conditions (Hpx(-) dps and recA fur), presumably because of their inability to tolerate ROS, seems to depend on CO(2) concentration. Thus, CO(2) exacerbates ROS toxicity by increasing oxidative cellular lesions.
Ezraty B et al; EMBO Rep 12 (4): 321-6 (2011)
The responsiveness of respiratory center to stimulation by CO2 ... is depressed by anoxia and various drugs such as ether, alcohol, chloroform, morphine, barbital, etc.
Osol, A., and R. Pratt. (eds.). The United States Dispensatory. 27th ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1973., p. 232
The role of CO2 in hyperbaric oxygen toxicity was investigated by administering acetazolamide ..., tris buffer (tris-hydroxymethyl) aminomethane, and NaHCO3 by ip injection, and by exposure of other groups of animals to an atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 95% O2. All animals were placed in a pressure chamber and maintained at 50 psig in 100% O2 until death. The tris buffer and NaHCO3 buffer significantly extended /the/ time to onset of convulsions and to time of death. Acetazolamide and also 5% CO2 shortened /the/ time of convulsions and significantly shortened survival time. Apparently, increased tissue levels of CO2 play an important role in hyperbaric O2 toxicity. The cause of death in the animals exposed to hyperbaric O2 was pulmonary edema secondary to a systemic hypertension.
Wood CD; Undersea Biomed Res 9 (1): 15-20 (1982)
Toxicological interactions between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide were evaluated in rats. Groups of six male Fischer rats were exposed for 30 minutes to carbon monoxide and CO2, either individually or in combination, or to the products of combustible materials. Exposure to carbon monoxide in air caused death within the first minute at concentrations of 4600 to 5000 ppm, which gave carboxyhemoglobin levels greater than 83%. With 2500 ppm carbon monoxide, blood pH decreased from 7.42 to 7.2. The CO2 concentrations tested (1.3 to 14.7%) were neither incapacitating nor lethal. When CO2 was added to sublethal concentrations of carbon monoxide, some of the rats died during either the 30 minute exposure period or in the following 24 hours. The rate of formation of carboxyhemoglobin from an exposure to 2500 ppm carbon monoxide was 1.5 times greater in the presence of 5.25% CO2. However, this could not explain the increased death rate, since the carboxyhemoglobin equilibrium level (78%) did not change. The combination of 2500 ppm carbon monoxide and 5.25% CO2 reduced the blood pH to 6.8. With the combined gases, the total CO2 and bicarbonate values remained low for at least 30 minutes after exposure indicating that a combination of respiratory and metabolic acidosis occurred in animals exposed to both gases. Carbon monoxide, CO2 and carboxyhemoglobin levels produced as a result of thermal combustion of 11 natural and synthetic materials at their median lethal concentrations were measured. Only polyphenylsulfone produced sufficient carbon monoxide and carboxyhemoglobin levels to suggest carbon monoxide as the primary toxicant. For the other materials the carbon monoxide concentration was too low to account for the deaths observed. It was concluded that in the range of 2500 to 4100 ppm, carbon monoxide alone has very little probability of causing death, but if it is combined with levels of CO2 above 1.5 % the probability of death is much higher.
Levin BC et al; Toxicology 47 (1-2): 135-64 (1987)
For more Interactions (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (6 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

14.1.13 Antidote and Emergency Treatment

Immediate first aid: Ensure that adequate decontamination has been carried out. If patient is not breathing, start artificial respiration, preferably with a demand-valve resuscitator, bag-valve-mask device, or pocket mask, as trained. Perform CPR as necessary. Immediately flush contaminated eyes with gently flowing water. Do not induce vomiting. If vomiting occurs, lean patient forward or place on left side (head-down position, if possible) to maintain an open airway and prevent aspiration. Keep patient quiet and maintain normal body temperature. Obtain medical attention. /Simple asphyxiants and related compounds/
Currance, P.L. Clements, B., Bronstein, A.C. (Eds).; Emergency Care For Hazardous Materials Exposure. 3rd revised edition, Elsevier Mosby, St. Louis, MO 2007, p. 439
Basic treatment: Establish a patent airway (oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway, if needed). Suction if necessary. Watch for signs of respiratory insufficiency and assist ventilations if necessary. Administer oxygen by nonrebreather mask at 10 to 15 L/min. Anticipate seizures and treat if necessary ... . Use rapid rewarming techniques if frostbite occurs ... . /Simple asphyxiants and related compounds/
Currance, P.L. Clements, B., Bronstein, A.C. (Eds).; Emergency Care For Hazardous Materials Exposure. 3rd revised edition, Elsevier Mosby, St. Louis, MO 2007, p. 439
Advanced treatment: Consider orotracheal or nasotracheal intubation for airway control in the patient who is unconscious or is in severe respiratory distress. Monitor cardiac rhythm and treat arrhythmias if necessary ... . Start IV administration of D5W /SRP: "To keep open", minimal flow rate/. Treat seizures with diazepam or lorazepam ... . /Simple asphyxiants and related compounds/
Currance, P.L. Clements, B., Bronstein, A.C. (Eds).; Emergency Care For Hazardous Materials Exposure. 3rd revised edition, Elsevier Mosby, St. Louis, MO 2007, p. 439-440

14.1.14 Medical Surveillance

Consider evaluation of body calcium and acid-base balance.
Pohanish, R.P. (ed). Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemical Carcinogens 6th Edition Volume 1: A-K,Volume 2: L-Z. William Andrew, Waltham, MA 2012, p. 567
It is recognized that repeated daily exposure at 0.5 to 1.5% inspired carbon dioxide at 1 atmosphere is well tolerated by normal individuals. Employment medical examination should be directed to selecting individuals normal in cardiovascular, pulmonary-respiratory, & neurological function. Specific appraisal & standards should incl ... MEDICAL HISTORY- AGE: /Protect from exposure/ individuals over 65, even in evident good health. History of current & past illness: Exclude individuals with recent (5 yr) history of: epilepsy of any form, stroke, fainting, cardiac dysfunction of any form ... chronic resp distress of any form ... glaucoma, mental disease of any form, current endocrine disorder, & gastric or duodenal ulcer. PHYSIOLOGIC AND GENERAL MEDICAL EXAM: General medical exam, blood pressure, electrocardiogram, chest X-ray, pulmonary vital capacity, exercise tolerance step test (masters), red cell count, white cell count, & hemoglobin concn & urinalysis. The results are to be within normal limits & these exams should be repeated periodically; frequency ... detemined ... /by/ physician.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values, 4th ed., 1980. Cincinnati, Ohio: American Conference of Governmmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., 1980., p. 69

14.1.15 Human Toxicity Excerpts

/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ ... Twelve healthy submarine volunteers who were exposed at 1% carbon dioxide for 22 days. Serum calcium and urinary output of phosphorus fell progressively throughout the exposure period. This was interpreted as indicating mild metabolic stress on the volunteers.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Documentation of the TLVs and BEIs with Other World Wide Occupational Exposure Values. 7th Ed. CD-ROM Cincinnati, OH 45240-1634 2013., p. 1-2
/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ Experiments were conducted in ten adult men to determine if rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) reduced the ventilatory response to two steady state respiratory loads compared to slow wave sleep (SWS). A constant addition of 150 (or 200) mL/min pure carbon dioxide (CO2) to the inspirate (7 subjects) and 230 mL of added dead space (5 subjects) were the two respiratory loads. Inspiratory ventilation was measured by pneumotachygraph for at least five continuous min in wakefulness, slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep. The incr in ventilation to both stimuli was equal in slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep with no suggestion of an impaired response during the latter: incr in ventilation during CO2 loading being 49 and 51%, slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep, respectively, and during additional dead space they were 53 and 59%, slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep, respectively. Following the addition of extra dead space, end tidal P(CO2) levels did not rise significantly more during rapid eye movement sleep compared to slow wave sleep (p > 0.5).
Warley A et al; Respir Physiol 75 (2): 183-92 (1989)
/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ The cerebrovascular reactivity to carbon dioxide (CO2) in the cerebral cortex and the subcortical white matter was measured in 12 healthy adult volunteers (4 young subjects aged 21-24 yr, 4 middle aged subjects aged 34-40 yr, and 4 elderly subjects aged 62-85 yr). Blood flow was computed from the concn history of xenon-133 in the volume of interest measured with an ultrapure germanium detector array. End tidal arterial carbon dioxide tension ranged from 35.4 to 42.6 mm Hg. The mean +/- SD baseline blood flows in the cerebral cortex were 60 +/- 7, 51 +/- 9, and 33 +/- 4 mL/100 cu cm/min in the young, the middle aged, and the elderly subjects, respectively; the corresponding subcortical white matter baseline blood flows were 21 +/- 1, 22 +/- 3, and 16 +/- 5 mL/100 cu cm/min. Mean +/- SD cerebrovascular reactivities to CO2 in the cerebral cortex were 2.03 +/- 0.58, 1.36 +/- 0.41, and 0.72 +/- 0.19 mL/100 cu cm/min/mm Hg arterial carbon dioxide tension for the young, the middle aged, and the elderly subjects, respectively; the corresponding reactivities in the subcortical white matter were 0.69 +/- 0.11, 0.59 +/- 0.17, and 0.36 +/- 0.41 mL/100 cu cm/min/mm Hg arterial carbon dioxide tension. Blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity in the cerebral cortex of the young subjects were significantly higher than those for white matter and significantly higher than those in the elderly subjects (p < 0.001). Age vs blood flow (for the cortex) and age vs cerebrovascular reactivity (for both cortical gray and subcortical white matter) also showed significant linear correlation (p < 0.05). However, the age related changes in white matter blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity were slow and the differences among the age groups were not statistically significant.
Reich T, Rusinek H; Stroke 20 (4): 453-7 (1989)
/HUMAN EXPOSURE STUDIES/ Eleven female patients (40 to 50 yr) after radical mastectomy were studied while put under a constant depth of enflurane anesthesia (1.1 minimum alveolar concn). Tracheal mucosa irritation was induced by injection of distilled water at 3 different levels of carbon dioxide ventilatory drive: resting level of spontaneous breathing (baseline, end-tidal CO2 partial pressure = 50 Torr), relative hypocapnia (end-tidal CO2 partial pressure = 35 Torr, where spontaneous respiratory activity disappeared), and relative hypercapnia (end-tidal CO2 partial pressure was raised to a level of 10 Torr above the baseline). With relative hypercapnia, water instillation caused only a brief apnea without any changes in blood pressure and heart rate. Although cough reflex, expiration reflex, and spasmodic panting were frequently observed during relative hypocapnia and baseline respiration, the occurrence of these responses was less frequent during relative hypercapnia. No significant changes in blood pressure and heart rate were observed before irritation of the tracheal mucosa at the 3 different levels of CO2 ventilatory drive. However under water stimulation, response durations of respiration, blood pressure and heart rate were all significantly longer at relative hypocapnia and were significantly shorter at relative hypercapnia, compared with the baseline values.
Nishino T et al; J Appl Physiol 66 (6): 2642-6 (1989)
For more Human Toxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (31 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

14.1.16 Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts

/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Acute Exposure/ The aim of this study was to assess whether one of the most common poisons of cellular respiration, i.e., carbon dioxide, is proinflammatory. CO(2) is naturally present in the atmosphere at the level of 0.038% and involved in numerous cellular biochemical reactions. We analyzed in vitro the inflammation response induced by exposure to CO(2) for 48 hr (0-20% with a constant O(2) concentration of 21%). In vivo mice were submitted to increasing concentrations of CO(2) (0, 5, 10, and 15% with a constant O(2) concentration of 21%) for 1 hr. The exposure to concentrations above 5% of CO(2) resulted in the increased transcription (RNase protection assay) and secretion (ELISA) of proinflammatory cytokines [macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), MIP-1beta, MIP-2, IL-8, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed, and, presumably, secreted (RANTES)] by epithelial cell lines HT-29 or A549 and primary pulmonary cells retrieved from the exposed mice. Lung inflammation was also demonstrated in vivo by mucin 5AC-enhanced production and airway hyperreactivity induction. This response was mostly mediated by the nuclear translocation of p65 NF-kappaB, itself a consequence of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activation. Short inhibiting RNAs (siRNAs) targeted toward PP2Ac reversed the effect of carbon dioxide, i.e., disrupted the NF-kappaB activation and the proinflammatory cytokine secretion. In conclusion, this study strongly suggests that exposure to carbon dioxide may be more toxic than previously thought ...
Abolhassani M et al; Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 296 (4): L657-65 (2009)
/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Acute Exposure/ Subterranean storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) has been proposed to diminish atmospheric increases of this greenhouse gas. To contribute to risk assessment of accidental release associated with handling, transport and storage, rats were exposed to high concentrations (targets 40, 43 and 50 volume %) of CO2. The oxygen concentrations dropped as a result, but were not supplemented. For each concentration, pairs of animals were exposed for different exposure durations to derive an exposure concentration-duration relation in which mortality is described as a function of C(n)x(t) (probit relation). A very high "n" value for the probit function could be derived from the data obtained at 40% and 43% CO2, which indicates that for exposure durations longer than 30 min the LC50 decreases hardly with increasing exposure duration. Below 30 min the LC50 seemed to increase with decreasing exposure durations. The variability in the data of 43% and 50% CO2, however, did not allow to derive a meaningful value of "n".
Muijser H et al; Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 69 (2): 201-6 (2014)
/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Acute Exposure/ The biocidal action of carbon dioxide is primarily due to it causing "respiratory acidosis" in target animals. Once released, the carbon dioxide reaches the maximum concn of 66% in the RADAR /rodent trap/ within 45 sec; and 4 min later on declines to approximately 30%. Complete release time from the RADAR into the surrounding environment exceeds 15 min. Carbon dioxide levels build up in the blood causing staggering, panting, coma and ultimately death, which occurs probably within the first minute (time when no more movements were observed). These observations were performed in three mice with bw ranging from 14.5 to 17.8 g, which corresponds to 3 or 4-wk old mice.
European Commission, ESIS; Biocides Products Directive Pt 14 98/8/EC, Carbon Dioxide (124-38-9) p.7 (November 2007). Available from, as of October 20, 2009: https://esis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
/LABORATORY ANIMALS: Acute Exposure/ The purpose of this study was to determine the length of CO(2) exposure required to euthanize neonatal rats (0 to 10 d old). Multiple groups of rats were exposed to 100% CO(2) for 5 to 60 min. After CO(2) exposure, rats were placed in room air for 20 min to allow for possible recovery. No difference was found in comparing 1 inbred strain and 1 outbred stock of rats. Time to death varied inversely with the age of the animals, requiring as long as 35 min on the day of birth. The time to death decreased steadily with increasing age, with 100% of the rats euthanized after 5 min of CO(2) exposure at 10 day of age. The time required for 100% mortality decreased by 3 min for every 1 day increase in age between days 0 and 10.
Pritchett-Corning KR; J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci 48 (1): 23-7 (2009)
For more Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (40 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

14.1.17 Protein Binding

No protein binding data.

14.2 Ecological Information

14.2.1 Ecotoxicity Values

LC50; Species: /Oncorhynchus mykiss/ (Rainbow trout); Concentration: 240 mg/L for 1 hour /Conditions of bioassay not specified in source/
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon dioxide p.41 (1984)
LC50; Species: /Oncorhynchus mykiss/ (Rainbow trout); Concentration: 35 mg/L for 96 hr /Conditions of bioassay not specified in source/
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon dioxide p.41 (1984)
LC50; Species: /Oncorhynchus mykiss/ (Rainbow trout); Concentration: 60-240 mg/L for 12 hr /Conditions of bioassay not specified in source/
Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Carbon dioxide p.41 (1984)

14.2.2 Ecotoxicity Excerpts

/AQUATIC SPECIES/ Carbon capture and storage is increasingly being considered one of the most efficient approaches to mitigate the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere associated with anthropogenic emissions. However, the environmental effects of potential CO2 leaks remain largely unknown. The amphipod Ampelisca brevicornis was exposed to environmental sediments collected in different areas of the Gulf of Cadiz and subjected to several pH treatments to study the effects of CO2-induced acidification on sediment toxicity. After 10 days of exposure, the results obtained indicated that high lethal effects were associated with the lowest pH treatments, except for the Ria of Huelva sediment test. The mobility of metals from sediment to the overlying seawater was correlated to a pH decrease. The data obtained revealed that CO2-related acidification would lead to lethal effects on amphipods as well as the mobility of metals, which could increase sediment toxicity.
Basallote MD et al; Environ Sci Technol 48 (15): 8864-72 (2014)
/AQUATIC SPECIES/ The injection and storage of CO2 into marine geological formations has been suggested as a mitigation measure to prevent global warming. However, storage leaks are possible resulting in several effects in the ecosystem. Laboratory-scale experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of CO2 leakage on the fate of metals and on the growth of the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Metal contaminated sediments were collected and submitted to acidification by means of CO2 injection or by adding HCl. Sediments elutriate were prepared to perform toxicity tests. The results showed that sediment acidification enhanced the release of metals to elutriates. Iron and zinc were the metals most influenced by this process and their concentration increased greatly with pH decreases. Diatom growth was inhibited by both processes: acidification and the presence of metals. Data obtained is this study is useful to calculate the potential risk of CCS activities to the marine environment.
De Orte MR et al; Mar Environ Res 96: 136-44 (2014)
/AQUATIC SPECIES/ Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), primarily from human fossil fuel combustion, reduces ocean pH and causes wholesale shifts in seawater carbonate chemistry. The process of ocean acidification is well documented in field data, and the rate will accelerate over this century unless future CO2 emissions are curbed dramatically. Acidification alters seawater chemical speciation and biogeochemical cycles of many elements and compounds. One well-known effect is the lowering of calcium carbonate saturation states, which impacts shell-forming marine organisms from plankton to benthic molluscs, echinoderms, and corals. Many calcifying species exhibit reduced calcification and growth rates in laboratory experiments under high-CO2 conditions. Ocean acidification also causes an increase in carbon fixation rates in some photosynthetic organisms (both calcifying and noncalcifying). The potential for marine organisms to adapt to increasing CO2 and broader implications for ocean ecosystems are not well known; both are high priorities for future research. Although ocean pH has varied in the geological past, paleo-events may be only imperfect analogs to current conditions.
Doney SC et al; Ann Rev Mar Sci 1: 169-92 (2009)
/AQUATIC SPECIES/ Ocean acidification describes the progressive, global reduction in seawater pH that is currently underway because of the accelerating oceanic uptake of atmospheric CO(2). Acidification is expected to reduce coral reef calcification and increase reef dissolution. Inorganic cementation in reefs describes the precipitation of CaCO(3) that acts to bind framework components and occlude porosity. Little is known about the effects of ocean acidification on reef cementation and whether changes in cementation rates will affect reef resistance to erosion. Coral reefs of the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP) are poorly developed and subject to rapid bioerosion. Upwelling processes mix cool, subthermocline waters with elevated pCO(2) (the partial pressure of CO(2)) and nutrients into the surface layers throughout the ETP. Concerns about ocean acidification have led to the suggestion that this region of naturally low pH waters may serve as a model of coral reef development in a high-CO(2) world. We analyzed seawater chemistry and reef framework samples from multiple reef sites in the ETP and found that a low carbonate saturation state (Omega) and trace abundances of cement are characteristic of these reefs. These low cement abundances may be a factor in the high bioerosion rates previously reported for ETP reefs, although elevated nutrients in upwelled waters may also be limiting cementation and/or stimulating bioerosion. ETP reefs represent a real-world example of coral reef growth in low-Omega waters that provide insights into how the biological-geological interface of coral reef ecosystems will change in a high-CO(2) world.
Manzello DP et al; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105 (30): 10450-5 (2008)
For more Ecotoxicity Excerpts (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (24 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

14.2.3 Natural Pollution Sources

Carbon dioxide is found in the products of combustion of all carbonaceous fuels. It is found in naturally occuring gases, and as a product of animal metabolism. The carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is about 0.03% vol as a result of the normal balance between animal and plant life cycles as affected by carbon dioxide solubility in water(1). Analyses of air in the temperate zones of the earth show 0.027 - 0.036% (v/v) of carbon dioxide(2). Carbon dioxide is one of primary gases released from volcanoes, along with sulfur dioxide(3).
(1) Pierantozzi R; Carbon Dioxide. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 13 Oct 2003
(2) O'Neil MJ, ed; The Merck Index. 15th ed., Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, p. 315 (2013) https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/activity/methods/gas/index.php
(3) USGS; Monitoring Volcanic Gases. Dec 2009.
Volcanoes emit large quantities of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and collects in low spots, displacing air in these locations. Hundreds of people have died of carbon dioxide asphyxiation near volcanoes in the past two decades, most of them in Cameroon, Africa, and in Indonesia.
USGS; Volcano Hazards Fact Sheet. Volcanic Gas. Open-File Report 95-85. March 1995. Washington, DC: US Dept Int., US Geol Survey.
/Carbon dioxide/ occurs in the atmosphere of many planets. In the solar system, ... on Venus the optical layer thickness due to carbon /dioxide/ is 100,000 cm/atm, but only 220 cm/atm on Earth. Analysis of air in temperate zones of earth show 0.027 to 0.036% (vol/vol) of CO2 ... Constituent of carbonate type of minerals and products of mineral metabolism. /Carbon dioxide/ is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. ... When glucose is fermented by yeast, the cheif products are ethyl alcohol and /carbon dioxide/.
O'Neil, M.J. (ed.). The Merck Index - An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013., p. 315
CARBON DIOXIDE ... IS FOUND IN SOLN IN SPRING WATER WHICH IS SOMETIMES SO CHARGED WITH GAS UNDER PRESSURE THAT IT IS EFFERVESCENT. IT IS EVOLVED IN LARGE QUANTITIES FROM VENTS AND FISSURES IN EARTH IN VOLCANIC REGIONS.
International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1983., p. 392

14.2.4 Artificial Pollution Sources

Carbon dioxide is found in the products of combustion of all carbonaceous fuels. Its production as a by-product of synthetic ammonia production, hydrogen production, substitute natural gas production, fermentation, chemical manufacturing, refrigeration and carbonation(1) as dry ice for refrigeration, to produce harmless smoke or fumes on stage and as a rice fumigant(2) will result in its direct release to the environment(SRC).
(1) Pierantozzi R; Carbon Dioxide. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 13 Oct 2003
(2) O'Neil MJ, ed; The Merck Index. 15th ed., Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, p. 315 (2013)

14.2.5 Environmental Fate

The extensive sets of global CO2 measurements of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin (NOAA) Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change (GMCC) division and of the Upper Atmosphere and Space Research Laboratory of Tohoku University are combined with a two-dimensional transport model to derive, in an "inverse" calculation, the latitudinal and seasonal distributions of sources and sinks of CO2 necessary to reproduce the observed concn. ... It is found that the southern oceans are a sink of carbon of 0.8 to 1.5 Gt/yr (1 Gt = 1 x 10 +15 g) and that the equatorial areas are a source to the atmosphere of 1.4 to 2.8 Gt. There seems to be significant seasonality in the sources and sinks of CO2, both in the tropics and in the southern oceans. Seasonal net ecosystem production north of 25 deg N is found to be 6.2 to 8.2 Gt of carbon. ... The global average net source of atmospheric CO2 estimated from the Tohoku data is 2.84 Gt C/yr, while for the GMCC data it is 2.98 Gt C/yr.
Tans PP et al; J Geophys Res 94 (D4): 5151-72 (1989)

14.2.6 Atmospheric Concentrations

Analyses of air in the temperate zones of the earth show a carbon dioxide concentration of 0.027 - 0.036% (v/v)(1). It is believed that carbon dioxide levels 500 million years ago were almost 20 times higher than today. About 200 million years ago carbon dioxide levels decreased to 4 or 5 times higher than today. Carbon dioxide levels have begun to increase(2). According to the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) of the U.S. Dept of Energy, the present CO2 atmospheric level is 401.52 ppm(3).
(1) O'Neil MJ, ed; The Merck Index. 15th ed., Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, p. 315 (2013)
(2) Scripps Inst Oceanography; Earthguide. Carbon Dioxide through Geologic Time. Scripps Inst Ocean, Geosci Res Div. Available from, as of May 26, 2015: https://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange2/07_1.shtml
(3) US Dept Energy; CDIAC. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. US DOE, Off Sci. Available from, as of May 26, 2015: https://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/
SOURCE DOMINATED: Carbon dioxide is main greenhouse gas released through human activities(1). Measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the Northern Hemisphere have shown an increase in the average concentrations from 290 ppm before 1900 to 330 ppm in the 1950's(2). The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing as increased amounts of fossil fuels are burned. There is some evidence that the rate of release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere may be greater than the earth's ability to assimilate it. US measurements show an increase of 1.36% of atmospheric carbon dioxide content in a five-year period, with indications that content may have increased by 25% as of 2003(3). In 2013, the gas acounted for approximately 83% of all US greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon dioxide releases to the atmosphere in the United States increased by approximately 7% between 1990 and 2013. This increase corresponds with increased energy use by an expanding economy and populations, an overall growth in emissions from electricity operations, and an increase in miles traveled by motor vehicles(1).
(1) US EPA; Overview of Greenhouse Gsases. Carbon Dioxide Emissions. Washington, DC: US Environ Protect Agency. Available from, as of May 23, 2015: https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html
(2) Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984. V1: 643 (1978)
(3) Pierantozzi R; Carbon Dioxide. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 13 Oct 2003
The first 12 yr (1974-1985) of continuous atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) measurements from the NOAA Geophysical Monitoring for Climate Change (GMCC) program at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii are analyzed. A digital filtering technique using the fast Fourier transform and low-pass filters was used to smooth the selected data and to separate the seasonal cycle from the long-term incr in CO2. The amplitude of the seasonal cycle was found to be incr at a rate of 0.05 + or - 0.02 ppm/yr. The avg growth rate of CO2 was 1.42 + or - .02 ppm/yr, and the fraction of CO2 remaining in the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion was 59%. A comparison between the Mauna Loa continuous CO2 data and the CO2 flask sample data from the sea level site at Cape Kumukahi, Hawaii, showed that the amplitude of the seasonal cycle at Cape Kumukahi was 23% larger than at Mauna Loa, with the phase of the cycle at Mauna Loa lagging the cycle at Cape Kumukahi by about 1-2 wk.
Thoning KW, Tans, PP; J Geophys Res (D) 94 (6): 8549-65 (1989)
The delta13C value of the dissolved inorganic carbon in the surface waters of the Pacific Ocean has decreased by about 0.4 parts per million between 1970 and 1990. This decrease has resulted from the uptake of atmospheric CO2 derived from fossil fuel combustion and deforestation. The net amounts of CO2 taken up by the oceans and released from the biosphere between 1970 and 1990 have been determined from the changes in three measures values: the concentration of atmospheric CO2, the delta13C of atmospheric CO2 and the delta13C value of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean. The calculated average net oceanic CO2 uptake is 2.1 gigatons of carbon per year. This amount implies that the ocean is the dominant net sink for anthropogenically produced CO2 and that there has been no significant net CO2, released from the biosphere during the last 20 years.
Quay D et al; Science 256 (5053): 74-79 (1992)
For more Atmospheric Concentrations (Complete) data for Carbon dioxide (7 total), please visit the HSDB record page.

14.2.7 Probable Routes of Human Exposure

According to the 2012 TSCA Inventory Update Reporting data, 98 reporting facilities estimate the number of persons reasonably likely to be exposed during the manufacturing, processing, or use of carbon dioxide in the United States may be as low as <10 workers and as high as 9999 workers per plant; the data may be greatly underestimated due to confidential business information (CBI) or unknown values(1).
(1) US EPA; Chemical Data Reporting (CDR). Non-confidential 2012 Chemical Data Reporting information on chemical production and use in the United States. Available from, as of June 2012: https://www.epa.gov/cdr/pubs/guidance/cdr_factsheets.html
NIOSH (NOES Survey 1981-1983) has statistically estimated that 1,121,046 workers (222,613 of these were female) were potentially exposed to carbon dioxide in the US(1). The NOES Survey does not include farm workers. Occupational exposure to carbon dioxide may occur through inhalation and dermal contact with this compound at workplaces where carbon dioxide is produced or used. Carbon dioxide is ubiquitous in the environment(2) and, therefore, the general population may be exposed to carbon dioxide via inhalation of ambient air, ingestion of food and drinking water, and dermal contact with carbon dioxide(SRC).
(1) NIOSH; NOES. National Occupational Exposure Survey conducted from 1981-1983. Estimated numbers of employees potentially exposed to specific agents by 2-digit standard industrial classification (SIC). Available from, as of Feb 26, 2015: https://www.cdc.gov/noes/
(2) Pierantozzi R; Carbon Dioxide. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Online Posting Date: 13 Oct 2003
Inhalation or skin contact.
Mackison, F. W., R. S. Stricoff, and L. J. Partridge, Jr. (eds.). NIOSH/OSHA - Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123 (3 VOLS). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Jan. 1981., p. 3
Concentration of 10% or more may occur in mines, pits with rotting vegetation, grain elevators and ships' holds loaded with agricultural products (onions liberate large amounts of carbon dioxide) and men going into the hold may be disoriented or made unconscious.
Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972., p. 57
Workers in special occupational environments, such as, submarines, space travel or breweries, may tolerate daily exposures up to 1.5%. Such exposures...should be limited to medically fit workers.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values, 4th ed., 1980. Cincinnati, Ohio: American Conference of Governmmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., 1980., p. 69

15 Associated Disorders and Diseases

Associated Occupational Diseases with Exposure to the Compound
Asphyxiation, simple [Category: Acute Poisoning]
Disease
Fructose-1,6-diphosphatase deficiency
References
Disease
Oculocerebrorenal syndrome
References
PubMed: 2017228
Disease
Bartter Syndrome, Type 3
References
PubMed: 28381550
Disease
Long-chain Fatty Acids, Defect in Transport of
References
PubMed: 3185635
Disease
Pearson Syndrome
References
PubMed: 25691415

16 Literature

16.1 Consolidated References

16.2 NLM Curated PubMed Citations

16.3 Springer Nature References

16.4 Thieme References

16.5 Wiley References

16.6 Chemical Co-Occurrences in Literature

16.7 Chemical-Gene Co-Occurrences in Literature

16.8 Chemical-Disease Co-Occurrences in Literature

17 Patents

17.1 Depositor-Supplied Patent Identifiers

17.2 WIPO PATENTSCOPE

17.3 Chemical Co-Occurrences in Patents

17.4 Chemical-Disease Co-Occurrences in Patents

17.5 Chemical-Gene Co-Occurrences in Patents

18 Interactions and Pathways

18.1 Protein Bound 3D Structures

18.1.1 Ligands from Protein Bound 3D Structures

PDBe Ligand Code
PDBe Structure Code
PDBe Conformer

18.2 Chemical-Target Interactions

18.3 Pathways

19 Biological Test Results

19.1 BioAssay Results

20 Taxonomy

WormJam Metabolites Local CSV for MetFrag | DOI:10.5281/zenodo.3403364
WormJam: A consensus C. elegans Metabolic Reconstruction and Metabolomics Community and Workshop Series, Worm, 6:2, e1373939, DOI:10.1080/21624054.2017.1373939
Zebrafish Pathway Metabolite MetFrag Local CSV (Beta) | DOI:10.5281/zenodo.3457553
The LOTUS Initiative for Open Natural Products Research: frozen dataset union wikidata (with metadata) | DOI:10.5281/zenodo.5794106

21 Classification

21.1 MeSH Tree

21.2 NCI Thesaurus Tree

21.3 ChEBI Ontology

21.4 KEGG: Drug

21.5 KEGG: ATC

21.6 KEGG: JP15

21.7 WHO ATC Classification System

21.8 FDA Pharm Classes

21.9 ChemIDplus

21.10 CAMEO Chemicals

21.11 ChEMBL Target Tree

21.12 UN GHS Classification

21.13 EPA CPDat Classification

21.14 NORMAN Suspect List Exchange Classification

21.15 EPA DSSTox Classification

21.16 Consumer Product Information Database Classification

21.17 EPA TSCA and CDR Classification

21.18 LOTUS Tree

21.19 FDA Drug Type and Pharmacologic Classification

21.20 EPA Substance Registry Services Tree

21.21 MolGenie Organic Chemistry Ontology

22 Information Sources

  1. Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme (AICIS)
  2. CAMEO Chemicals
    LICENSE
    CAMEO Chemicals and all other CAMEO products are available at no charge to those organizations and individuals (recipients) responsible for the safe handling of chemicals. However, some of the chemical data itself is subject to the copyright restrictions of the companies or organizations that provided the data.
    https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/help/reference/terms_and_conditions.htm?d_f=false
    CARBON DIOXIDE, REFRIGERATED LIQUID
    https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/333
    CAMEO Chemical Reactivity Classification
    https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/browse/react
  3. CAS Common Chemistry
    LICENSE
    The data from CAS Common Chemistry is provided under a CC-BY-NC 4.0 license, unless otherwise stated.
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
  4. ChemIDplus
    ChemIDplus Chemical Information Classification
    https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/source/ChemIDplus
  5. DrugBank
    LICENSE
    Creative Common's Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/legalcode)
    https://www.drugbank.ca/legal/terms_of_use
  6. EPA Chemical Data Reporting (CDR)
    LICENSE
    The U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce these documents, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes. These documents may be freely distributed and used for non-commercial, scientific and educational purposes.
    https://www.epa.gov/web-policies-and-procedures/epa-disclaimers#copyright
  7. EPA Chemicals under the TSCA
    EPA TSCA Classification
    https://www.epa.gov/tsca-inventory
  8. EPA DSSTox
    CompTox Chemicals Dashboard Chemical Lists
    https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical-lists/
  9. European Chemicals Agency (ECHA)
    LICENSE
    Use of the information, documents and data from the ECHA website is subject to the terms and conditions of this Legal Notice, and subject to other binding limitations provided for under applicable law, the information, documents and data made available on the ECHA website may be reproduced, distributed and/or used, totally or in part, for non-commercial purposes provided that ECHA is acknowledged as the source: "Source: European Chemicals Agency, http://echa.europa.eu/". Such acknowledgement must be included in each copy of the material. ECHA permits and encourages organisations and individuals to create links to the ECHA website under the following cumulative conditions: Links can only be made to webpages that provide a link to the Legal Notice page.
    https://echa.europa.eu/web/guest/legal-notice
  10. FDA Global Substance Registration System (GSRS)
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise noted, the contents of the FDA website (www.fda.gov), both text and graphics, are not copyrighted. They are in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from FDA. Credit to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the source is appreciated but not required.
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/about-website/website-policies#linking
  11. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB)
  12. Human Metabolome Database (HMDB)
    LICENSE
    HMDB is offered to the public as a freely available resource. Use and re-distribution of the data, in whole or in part, for commercial purposes requires explicit permission of the authors and explicit acknowledgment of the source material (HMDB) and the original publication (see the HMDB citing page). We ask that users who download significant portions of the database cite the HMDB paper in any resulting publications.
    http://www.hmdb.ca/citing
  13. ILO-WHO International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs)
  14. New Zealand Environmental Protection Authority (EPA)
    LICENSE
    This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International licence.
    https://www.epa.govt.nz/about-this-site/general-copyright-statement/
  15. NJDOH RTK Hazardous Substance List
  16. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
    LICENSE
    Materials created by the federal government are generally part of the public domain and may be used, reproduced and distributed without permission. Therefore, content on this website which is in the public domain may be used without the prior permission of the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). Warning: Some content - including both images and text - may be the copyrighted property of others and used by the DOL under a license.
    https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/copyright
  17. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
    LICENSE
    The information provided using CDC Web site is only intended to be general summary information to the public. It is not intended to take the place of either the written law or regulations.
    https://www.cdc.gov/Other/disclaimer.html
  18. EU Food Improvement Agents
  19. EU Pesticides Database
  20. Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG)
  21. Haz-Map, Information on Hazardous Chemicals and Occupational Diseases
    LICENSE
    Copyright (c) 2022 Haz-Map(R). All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials from Haz-Map are copyrighted by Haz-Map(R). No part of these materials, either text or image may be used for any purpose other than for personal use. Therefore, reproduction, modification, storage in a retrieval system or retransmission, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, for reasons other than personal use, is strictly prohibited without prior written permission.
    https://haz-map.com/About
  22. ChEBI
  23. E. coli Metabolome Database (ECMDB)
    LICENSE
    ECMDB is offered to the public as a freely available resource.
    https://ecmdb.ca/citations
  24. FDA Pharm Classes
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise noted, the contents of the FDA website (www.fda.gov), both text and graphics, are not copyrighted. They are in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from FDA. Credit to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the source is appreciated but not required.
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/about-website/website-policies#linking
  25. LOTUS - the natural products occurrence database
    LICENSE
    The code for LOTUS is released under the GNU General Public License v3.0.
    https://lotus.nprod.net/
  26. NCI Thesaurus (NCIt)
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise indicated, all text within NCI products is free of copyright and may be reused without our permission. Credit the National Cancer Institute as the source.
    https://www.cancer.gov/policies/copyright-reuse
  27. Open Targets
    LICENSE
    Datasets generated by the Open Targets Platform are freely available for download.
    https://platform-docs.opentargets.org/licence
  28. Toxin and Toxin Target Database (T3DB)
    LICENSE
    T3DB is offered to the public as a freely available resource. Use and re-distribution of the data, in whole or in part, for commercial purposes requires explicit permission of the authors and explicit acknowledgment of the source material (T3DB) and the original publication.
    http://www.t3db.ca/downloads
  29. Yeast Metabolome Database (YMDB)
    LICENSE
    YMDB is offered to the public as a freely available resource.
    http://www.ymdb.ca/downloads
  30. ChEMBL
    LICENSE
    Access to the web interface of ChEMBL is made under the EBI's Terms of Use (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Information/termsofuse.html). The ChEMBL data is made available on a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/).
    http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Information/termsofuse.html
  31. ClinicalTrials.gov
    LICENSE
    The ClinicalTrials.gov data carry an international copyright outside the United States and its Territories or Possessions. Some ClinicalTrials.gov data may be subject to the copyright of third parties; you should consult these entities for any additional terms of use.
    https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/about-site/terms-conditions#Use
  32. Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD)
    LICENSE
    It is to be used only for research and educational purposes. Any reproduction or use for commercial purpose is prohibited without the prior express written permission of NC State University.
    http://ctdbase.org/about/legal.jsp
  33. Consumer Product Information Database (CPID)
    LICENSE
    Copyright (c) 2024 DeLima Associates. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials from CPID are copyrighted by DeLima Associates. No part of these materials, either text or image may be used for any purpose other than for personal use. Therefore, reproduction, modification, storage in a retrieval system or retransmission, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, for reasons other than personal use, is strictly prohibited without prior written permission.
    https://www.whatsinproducts.com/contents/view/1/6
    Consumer Products Category Classification
    https://www.whatsinproducts.com/
  34. Crystallography Open Database (COD)
    LICENSE
    All data in the COD and the database itself are dedicated to the public domain and licensed under the CC0 License. Users of the data should acknowledge the original authors of the structural data.
    https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/
  35. DailyMed
  36. Drugs@FDA
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise noted, the contents of the FDA website (www.fda.gov), both text and graphics, are not copyrighted. They are in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from FDA. Credit to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the source is appreciated but not required.
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/about-website/website-policies#linking
  37. ECI Group, LCSB, University of Luxembourg
    LICENSE
    Data: CC-BY 4.0; Code: Artistic-2.0
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    carbon dioxide
  38. Natural Product Activity and Species Source (NPASS)
  39. EPA Chemical and Products Database (CPDat)
  40. EU Clinical Trials Register
  41. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
    LICENSE
    Permission from WHO is not required for the use of WHO materials issued under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Intergovernmental Organization (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO) licence.
    https://www.who.int/about/policies/publishing/copyright
  42. NORMAN Suspect List Exchange
    LICENSE
    Data: CC-BY 4.0; Code (hosted by ECI, LCSB): Artistic-2.0
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    Carbon dioxide
    NORMAN Suspect List Exchange Classification
    https://www.norman-network.com/nds/SLE/
  43. NITE-CMC
    Carbon dioxide - FY2009 (New/original classication)
    https://www.chem-info.nite.go.jp/chem/english/ghs/09-mhlw-0041e.html
  44. National Drug Code (NDC) Directory
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise noted, the contents of the FDA website (www.fda.gov), both text and graphics, are not copyrighted. They are in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from FDA. Credit to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the source is appreciated but not required.
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/about-website/website-policies#linking
  45. FDA Substances Added to Food
    LICENSE
    Unless otherwise noted, the contents of the FDA website (www.fda.gov), both text and graphics, are not copyrighted. They are in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from FDA. Credit to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as the source is appreciated but not required.
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/about-website/website-policies#linking
  46. FooDB
    LICENSE
    FooDB is offered to the public as a freely available resource. Use and re-distribution of the data, in whole or in part, for commercial purposes requires explicit permission of the authors and explicit acknowledgment of the source material (FooDB) and the original publication.
    https://foodb.ca/about
  47. MassBank Europe
  48. MassBank of North America (MoNA)
    LICENSE
    The content of the MoNA database is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
    https://mona.fiehnlab.ucdavis.edu/documentation/license
  49. NIST Mass Spectrometry Data Center
    LICENSE
    Data covered by the Standard Reference Data Act of 1968 as amended.
    https://www.nist.gov/srd/public-law
  50. SpectraBase
  51. Japan Chemical Substance Dictionary (Nikkaji)
  52. KEGG
    LICENSE
    Academic users may freely use the KEGG website. Non-academic use of KEGG generally requires a commercial license
    https://www.kegg.jp/kegg/legal.html
    Therapeutic category of drugs in Japan
    http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/get_htext?br08301.keg
    Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification
    http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/get_htext?br08303.keg
    Drugs listed in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia
    http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/get_htext?br08311.keg
  53. MarkerDB
    LICENSE
    This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
    https://markerdb.ca/
  54. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods
    LICENSE
    The information provided using CDC Web site is only intended to be general summary information to the public. It is not intended to take the place of either the written law or regulations.
    https://www.cdc.gov/Other/disclaimer.html
  55. NIPH Clinical Trials Search of Japan
  56. NLM RxNorm Terminology
    LICENSE
    The RxNorm Terminology is created by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) and is in the public domain and may be republished, reprinted and otherwise used freely by anyone without the need to obtain permission from NLM. Credit to the U.S. National Library of Medicine as the source is appreciated but not required. The full RxNorm dataset requires a free license.
    https://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/umls/rxnorm/docs/termsofservice.html
  57. PharmGKB
    LICENSE
    PharmGKB data are subject to the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareALike 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).
    https://www.pharmgkb.org/page/policies
  58. Protein Data Bank in Europe (PDBe)
  59. RCSB Protein Data Bank (RCSB PDB)
    LICENSE
    Data files contained in the PDB archive (ftp://ftp.wwpdb.org) are free of all copyright restrictions and made fully and freely available for both non-commercial and commercial use. Users of the data should attribute the original authors of that structural data.
    https://www.rcsb.org/pages/policies
  60. Rhea - Annotated Reactions Database
    LICENSE
    Rhea has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that you are free to copy, distribute, display and make commercial use of the database in all legislations, provided you credit (cite) Rhea.
    https://www.rhea-db.org/help/license-disclaimer
  61. Springer Nature
  62. SpringerMaterials
  63. Thieme Chemistry
    LICENSE
    The Thieme Chemistry contribution within PubChem is provided under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, unless otherwise stated.
    https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
  64. WHO Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification
    LICENSE
    Use of all or parts of the material requires reference to the WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology. Copying and distribution for commercial purposes is not allowed. Changing or manipulating the material is not allowed.
    https://www.whocc.no/copyright_disclaimer/
  65. Wikidata
  66. Wikipedia
  67. Wiley
  68. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
    LICENSE
    Works produced by the U.S. government are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any such works found on National Library of Medicine (NLM) Web sites may be freely used or reproduced without permission in the U.S.
    https://www.nlm.nih.gov/copyright.html
  69. PubChem
  70. GHS Classification (UNECE)
  71. EPA Substance Registry Services
  72. MolGenie
    MolGenie Organic Chemistry Ontology
    https://github.com/MolGenie/ontology/
  73. PATENTSCOPE (WIPO)
CONTENTS